Medical Conditions

Acute Kidney Failure in Cats

Acute renal failure (ARF) or acute kidney failure refers to the sudden failure of the kidneys to perform normal filtration duties. ARF leads to accumulation of toxins and other metabolic wastes in the bloodstream, dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and disturbances in the acid-base balance of the blood. The initial prognosis is guarded for all cases of ARF. If the cause is an infection, there is a better prognosis than if the cause is a toxic substance.

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Allergies in Cats

One of the most common medical conditions affecting cats is allergy. Flea allergy, food allergies, atopy, and contact allergies are examples of allergies in cats, with flea allergy being the most common cause. Flea allergy is a response to proteins or antigens present in the flea's saliva, and just one fleabite may cause such intense itching that the cat may severely scratch or chew itself, leading to the removal of large amounts of hair. Food allergy testing is conducted by feeding an elimination or hypoallergenic diet. If your cat's symptoms improve after the food trial, a presumptive diagnosis of food allergy is made.

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Anal Sac Disease in Cats

The anal sacs are two small pouches located on either side of the anus at approximately the four o'clock and eight o'clock positions. The walls of the sac produce a foul smelling fluid which is released whenever the cat passes a bowel movement. The anal sacs or their ducts can become inflamed or infected due to a variety of causes. Most cats will respond well to pain relief medications and antibiotics (for several days until the swelling and inflammation have subsided. If a cat has several episodes of anal sac disease, and diet or supplements do not relieve the problem, the anal sacs can be removed surgically.

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Anemia in Cats

Anemia is a medical term referring to a reduced number of circulating red blood cells, hemoglobin, or both. It is not a specific disease but rather it is the result of some other disease process or condition. The most easily observed and common clinical sign of anemia is a loss of the normal pink color of the gums. Several tests are performed on blood samples to diagnose anemia. If your cat's anemia is so severe that it is life threatening, a blood transfusion will be needed.

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Asthma and Bronchitis in Cats

Asthma or chronic bronchitis is a condition where the lower airways of cats become narrow and produce excess mucus in response to a noxious stimulus such as cigarette smoke, dust, or fragrances. The most common clinical sign is coughing. A diagnosis is made through a combination of chest radiographs, heartworm testing, bloodwork, urine and fecal testing, and may also require bronchoscopy or airway lavage. As asthma cannot be cured, treatment is aimed at management of the disease using a combination of steroids and bronchodilators, usually given by inhalation to avoid or reduce negative systemic side effects. Adjunct treatments include modifying the environment to reduce exposure to the noxious stimulus, hypoallergenic diet trials, and acupuncture.

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Autoimmune Skin Disease in Cats

Our bodies have an immune system that protects us from foreign invaders that can cause disease and infection; however, if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks itself by mistake, causing serious illness.

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Bladder Stones in Cats

Bladder stones (uroliths or cystic calculi) are rock-like formations of minerals that develop in the urinary bladder. There may be a large, single stone or a collection of stones that range in size from sand-like grains to gravel.

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Cardiomyopathy in Cats

Cardiomyopathy is a term used to describe diseases of the heart muscle. In cats, three classes of cardiomyopathy have been described: hypertrophic, dilated, and intermediate or restrictive cardiomyopathy. In the early stages of disease, the cat may not show any signs of disease. This is referred to as compensated heart disease. Often cats will alter their activity levels to those that they can cope with, which makes it difficult to diagnose cardiomyopathy until it is quite advanced. Diagnosis of heart disease can be suspected based on clinical signs, chest X-rays, and electrocardiography (ECG). In cases where an underlying cause of the heart disease is found, then treatment of this condition may result in improvement or reversal of the heart disease. The long-term prognosis for a cat with cardiomyopathy is extremely variable, depending on the cause of this disease.

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Diabetes Mellitus in Cats - Overview

Diabetes is an inability of the body to regulate blood sugar caused by an abnormality of the pancreas and is the second most common endocrine disease in cats. It causes increased thirst, urination, appetite, and weight loss. Cats most commonly have type 2 diabetes caused by decreased insulin production or insulin resistance and it often is associated with obesity. Diabetes is diagnosed by measuring increased levels of glucose in the urine and blood. Diabetes treatment includes insulin injections and dietary manipulation. Changes in blood sugar must be monitored regularly. If cats receive too much insulin, they can become hypoglycemic resulting in weakness, coma or even death.

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Diaphragmatic Hernia in Cats

The diaphragm is the muscular partition that separates the abdomen and the chest. Tearing or disruption of this thin muscle is called a diaphragmatic hernia or diaphragmatic rupture. The most common cause of diaphragmatic hernia is blunt force trauma. Clinical signs are dependent on the severity of herniation. There is often respiratory distress, an abnormal heart rhythm, muffled heart and lung sounds, and other signs of systemic shock. The abdomen may feel empty when palpated. Once the patient is stable, the hernia must be corrected surgically.

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Chin Acne in Cats

Feline chin acne is a poorly understood disorder of follicular keratinization. Keratinization refers to the overproduction of keratin, a protein found in the outer layer of skin. If this excess keratin is trapped in the hair follicle, comedones or 'blackheads' form. Feline chin acne is similar to the acne that humans get.

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Chlamydial Conjunctivitis in Cats

Chlamydial conjunctivitis in cats is an infection caused by a bacterial organism. The most common signs of chlamydia in cats involve the eyes or the upper respiratory tract (nose or throat), and only when infection is not treated does it spread to the lungs. In cats with conjunctivitis, the conjunctiva becomes swollen and red. Chlamydia is spread by close or direct contact with an infected cat, so all cats in the home can become infected. Chlamydia can be successfully treated with a course of oral and topical antibiotics.

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Chronic Upper Respiratory Tract Disease

When clinical signs of upper respiratory tract inflammation, such as sneezing or nasal and eye discharge, persist over weeks or months, or when they tend to recur at intervals of a few weeks, the condition is referred to as chronic upper respiratory tract disease. A runny or stuffed-up nose is the most common clinical sign in cats with chronic infections. There are many causes of this relatively common problem in cats. The treatment will be determined by the test results and diagnosis.

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Chronic Kidney Disease in Cats

The kidneys have many functions. They principally act to remove waste products from the blood stream, regulate the levels of certain essential minerals such potassium and sodium, conserve water, and produce urine. The kidneys have a large amount of spare capacity to perform their various functions so at least two-thirds (67% to 70%) of the kidneys must be dysfunctional before any clinical signs are seen.

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Chylothorax in Cats

Chylothorax is a relatively rare condition in cats in which lymphatic fluid or chyle accumulates in the pleural cavity. Normally, only about a teaspoon (5 milliliters) of clear fluid is present in this space. When chylothorax is present, up to a quart (liter) of fluid may be present in this space. In some cases, chylothorax may be caused by trauma or by increased pressure within the thoracic duct or vena cava. Trauma may cause the thoracic duct to rupture or become 'leaky.'

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Cholangitis/Cholangiohepatitis Syndrome in Cats

Cholangitis is a term referring to inflammation of the bile duct. Cholangiohepatitis means inflammation of the bile ducts, gall bladder, and surrounding liver tissue. Cholangitis and cholangiohepatitis usually occur together as a complex or syndrome (CCHC or CCHS) and is much more common in cats than in dogs.

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Eye Discharge (Epiphora) in Cats

Epiphora or excessive tearing from the eyes can be a sign of tear duct blockage or more serious eye problems. Clinical signs include dampness beneath the eyes, reddish-brown staining of the fur beneath the eyes, odor, skin irritation, and skin infection. The facial anatomy of brachycephalic breeds may play a role in this condition. Treatment may include flushing of the lacrimal duct, or surgery to open the lacrimal puncta. The prognosis is variable and dependent on whether the underlying cause can be found and treated.

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Conjunctivitis in Cats

Any medical term that ends in -itis means "inflammation of". Conjunctivitis is defined as inflammation of the conjunctiva. The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane, similar to the lining of the mouth and nose. This membrane, a layer of epithelial cells with mucus-secreting cells, covers the eyeball and lines the eyelids.

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Constipation in Cats

Constipation can be defined as an abnormal accumulation of feces in the colon, resulting in difficult bowel movements. This may result in reduced frequency or absence of defecation.

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Corneal Ulcers in Cats

The cornea is the clear, glistening membrane that makes up the surface of the eyeball. A penetration or erosion through a few layers of the outermost corneal epithelium is called a corneal erosion or corneal abrasion. A corneal ulcer is a deeper erosion through the entire epithelium down into the stroma.

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Coughing in Cats

Cats do cough, but not as often as other animals. Retching or gagging is often confused with a cough in cats. A cough is an expiratory effort producing a sudden, noisy expulsion of air from the lungs.

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Cystitis and Lower Urinary Tract Disease in Cats

Cystitis is a general term referring to inflammation in the urinary bladder. The term cystitis does not imply a specific underlying cause. In cats, diseases of the lower urinary tract (bladder and urethra) are often grouped under the term feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD). The initial diagnosis of FLUTD is based on the identification of signs of lower urinary tract inflammation.

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Diarrhea Questionnaire and Checklist for Cats

Diarrhea is a sign of disease, rather than a specific diagnosis. This handout provides some important questions that allows your veterinary health team to formulate an adequate history in a cat presenting with diarrhea.

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Diarrhea in Cats

Diarrhea is unformed or loose bowel movements, usually with increased amount and frequency. It is a result of faster movement of fecal material through the intestine combined with decreased absorption of water, nutrients, and electrolytes. Diarrhea is not a disease, but rather is a sign of many different diseases. Causes of diarrhea may be determined through a combination of history, physical examination, and fecal testing. Diarrhea is often treated symptomatically with dewormers, probiotics, metronidazole or tylosin, and a special gastrointestinal diet. Chronic diarrhea, that has been present longer than two to three weeks, may prove more difficult to diagnose and treat effectively.

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Ear Infections in Cats (Otitis Externa)

Infections of the external ear canal or outer ear caused by bacteria and yeast are common in dogs but not as common in cats. The most common cause of feline otitis externa is ear mite infestation. Ear infections cause pain and discomfort and the ear canals are sensitive.

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Ear Mites in Cats and Dogs

The ear mite is a surface mite that lives on cats, dogs, rabbits, and ferrets. It is usually found in the ear canal but it can also live on the skin surface. Ear mites are a common cause of ear disease and infection. Infestations are a very common problem in puppies and kittens, although pets of any age can be affected.

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Nose Bleeds (Epistaxis) in Cats

Epistasis is the condition of bleeding from the nostril. First aid for epistaxis includes staying calm and applying an icepack over the nose of the cat. Your veterinarian will try to diagnose the cause of the bleeding through a combination of a detailed history, blood and urine tests including clotting tests, blood pressure, X-rays, and sample collection for cultures. There are many potential causes of epistaxis with the most common being trauma and infection. Treatment is aimed at the underlying condition. Prognosis depends on the cause of the epistaxis.

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Hepatic Lipidosis in Cats (Fatty Liver Syndrome in Cats)

Hepatic lipidosis, also known as fatty liver syndrome, is unique to cats and is one of the most common liver diseases seen in cats. Usually a cat with hepatic lipidosis has recently gone through a period of anorexia. When fat is broken down rapidly to supply energy and nutrients to the anorectic cat, it can overwhelm the ability of the liver to process and the fat becomes stored in and around the liver cells, further compromising liver function. Diagnosis of hepatic lipidosis is made from blood tests that demonstrate poor liver function and from a liver biopsy or aspirate. This disease is treatable with aggressive nutritional support until a normal appetite returns.

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Eosinophilic Granuloma Complex in Cats

Eosinophilic granuloma complex is a term used to describe three forms of skin lesions in cats including eosinophilic plaque, eosinophilic granuloma, and indolent ulcers. These lesions have a characteristic microscopic appearance due to the presence of eosinophils, which are a form of inflammatory white blood cell often associated with allergies. The most common site for these lesions is on the lips, hind legs, and stomachs. If an underlying cause is identified, specific treatment will be directed at removing this cause. Corticosteroids or cyclosporine drugs are often used to control the symptoms. Life-long intermittent treatment may be required as recurrence is common.

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Feline Idiopathic Cystitis

Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD) is an older term used to describe a set of clinical signs associated with abnormal urination in cats. When the condition has no identifiable cause, it is called Feline Idiopathic Cystitis. This condition was previously called Idiopathic Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (iFLUTD) or Pandora Syndrome.

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Miliary Dermatitis in Cats

Feline miliary dermatitis is a general term used to describe a skin condition in cats that most commonly results from an allergic reaction. Cats will have a very itchy rash and may lick, bite, and scratch at the affected skin. The most commonly affected areas include the lower spine, around the base of the tail, face, ears, neck, flanks, and belly. Diagnosis is based primarily on medical history and clinical signs. If fleas are not suspected or if the condition does not respond to symptomatic flea treatment, skin scrapings, biopsies, allergy tests, a hypoallergenic food trial, or a referral to a veterinary dermatologist may be recommended. Treatment involves removing the offending irritant or allergen and reducing the cat's clinical signs.

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Fever of Unknown Origin for Cats

Fever is a term that refers to an elevated body temperature. The normal body temperature range for cats is between 100.5°F and 102.5°F (38.1°C to 39.2°C). To be classified as a fever of unknown origin (FUO), the body temperature must be above 103.5°F (39.7°C) on at least four occasions over a fourteen-day period, accompanied by an illness of at least fourteen days' duration without an obvious cause.

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Fight Wound Infections in Cats

Wounds in cats often go undetected, but can cause significant problems the longer they are present. Wounds can be easily prevented by keeping your cat indoors, but if they occur, treatment by your veterinarian is recommended. Certain viral infections can cause wounds to persist and can be transmitted through biting.

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Flea Allergy Dermatitis in Cats

An allergy occurs when the cat's immune system overreacts or is hypersensitive to foreign substances called allergens. When a flea bites a cat to consume a blood meal, some of its saliva is injected into the skin. In an allergic cat, just one bite can result in intense itching that can last for days. Many flea-allergic cats chew or lick the hair off their legs. Since the flea saliva causes the reaction, the most important treatment for flea allergy is to prevent fleabites by treating the cat and environment for fleas. Corticosteroids can be used to block the allergic reaction and give immediate relief to a cat suffering from the intense itching of FAD.

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Frostbite in Cats

Frostbite is the damage that is caused to the skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. The paws, ears and tail are the most common tissues to be affected. Diagnosis is usually based on the cat's medical history and physical examination. If you suspect your cat has frostbite, you should seek medical attention immediately. Mild cases of frostbite usually resolve with little permanent damage while more severe frostbite may result in permanent disfiguration or alteration of the affected tissues. In severe cases, some cats require surgical removal of the necrotic tissue or amputation.

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Gastritis in Cats

Gastritis is defined as inflammation of the lining of the stomach. The most common clinical signs associated with gastritis are sudden vomiting and decreased appetite (anorexia). Causes of acute gastritis include the ingestion of spoiled or raw food, non-food items such as garbage, foreign objects, plants, toxins, eating inappropriate foodstuffs such as table scraps or leftovers, or being fed large quantities of food. Treatment is based on the specific cause. Most acute cases resolve without medical intervention.

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Gastroenteritis in Cats

Gastroenteritis refers to inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, meaning the stomach and the intestines. The principal treatment of gastroenteritis consists of rehydration and the restoration of blood electrolyte balance (sodium, potassium, and/or chloride). Most cases of acute gastroenteritis improve rapidly after rehydration. Early recognition and treatment are the cornerstones to returning your cat to his or her normal healthy state as quickly as possible.

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Endoscopy - Gastrointestinal in Cats

Your cat has been scheduled for an endoscopic examination. The purpose of this procedure is to help your veterinarian make a diagnosis of the disease that has been causing your pet's clinical signs of vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, abdominal pain or loss of appetite.

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Glomerulonephritis in Cats

Glomerulonephritis, also known as glomerular nephritis (GN), is a specific type of renal (kidney) disease characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli, which are the tiny structures in the kidneys that act as filters for the blood.

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Heart Disease in Cats

Though less common than in dogs, some heart conditions in cats are serious and need to be treated medically. The most common type of heart disease in cats is adult onset hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The two most common types of congenital heart disease are malformations of a valve or a septal defect in the wall that divides the right and left sides of the heart. Diagnosis involves X-rays, ECG, and echocardiography. The specific treatment will depend on the cause of the heart disease and depending on the underlying cause cats can have a normal life.

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Cysts

Cysts are hollow spaces within tissues that contain either a liquid or a solidified material. Some breeds have a tendency to develop certain types of cysts. Accurate diagnosis relies upon microscopic examination of a piece of tissue. The most common treatment for cysts is surgical removal. It is important to prevent your pet from rubbing, scratching, or otherwise bothering the cysts or the surgical site.

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Heartworm Disease in Cats

Heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis) are a blood-borne parasite that reside in the heart or adjacent large blood vessels of infected animals. Recent studies of cats with heart and respiratory diseases have found an incidence of heartworms that is far greater than previously thought. Veterinarians now strongly recommend that all cats receive year-round monthly heartworm preventives in areas where mosquitoes are active all year round.

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Hip Dislocation and Post-Operative Care in Cats

The most common cause of hip dislocation is blunt force trauma such as a fall or an automobile injury. Most cats with a hip dislocation will have severe hind limb lameness and pain, and may not be able to put any weight on the affected limb. A diagnostic X-ray will show the direction of dislocation, and whether a fracture of any part of the hip joint has occurred. In many cases, it is possible to replace the femoral head in the acetabulum by manipulation under general anesthesia. If the femoral head has been successfully replaced and the correct post-operative treatment has been adhered to, it is unlikely that the hip will redislocate.

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Joint Subluxations in Cats

A joint luxation is a dislocation or complete separation between the bones that normally articulate to form a joint. Subluxation is the term referring to a partial separation of the joint. The most commonly subluxated joint in cats is the hip, although any joint can be affected. Your veterinarian may be suspicious of a joint subluxation based on a history of trauma and physical examination findings such as pain and limping. A radiograph is necessary to definitively diagnose a joint subluxation. In many cases, the joint can be reduced or replaced to its original orientation by a procedure called a closed reduction with prognosis being good if treated immediately.

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Liver Diseases in Cats

The liver is an important organ necessary for controlling many different body functions. Signs of liver disease include increased drinking and urination, abdominal swelling, jaundice, digestive upset, and weight loss. Because of the varied actions of the liver there are several blood and urinary tests that can reveal liver disease. Imaging can be used to determine if there is a change in liver size or irregularity in liver tissue. Ultimately, a liver biopsy is often needed to definitively diagnose liver disease. A biopsy may be obtained by fine needle aspiration through the body wall or a surgical biopsy may be necessary. Anesthesia in a cat with liver disease will carry increased risk but often is relatively low. Treatment of liver disease depends on the diagnosis, but sometimes specific diets are recommended to help manage or slow the disease.

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Hematoma of the Ear in Cats

Ear hematomas are a collection of blood, either fresh or clotted, within the pinna. Excessive or violent shaking causes one or more blood vessels to break, resulting in bleeding into the space between the ear cartilage and skin on the inner surface of the ear. There is often an underlying cause which must be treated but additionally, surgery or drainage should be done to help relieve discomfort. Failure to treat will lead to a misshapen ear caused by damage from inflammation.

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Hypertension or High Blood Pressure in Cats

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, in cats can be a debilitating condition if not treated promptly. Hypertension may be caused by kidney disease, hyperthyroidism, or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Your veterinarian will recommend the best treatment options for your cat based on her specific needs. Prognosis is variable depending on how well these other conditions are controlled.

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Hyperthyroidism in Cats

Hyperthyroidism is a common condition in older cats that is caused by excess release of thyroid hormone resulting in an increased metabolic state. Hyperthyroidism can cause weight loss despite a good appetite, increased water consumption and urination, vomiting, diarrhea, cardiomyopathy, and hypertension. Diagnosis is made by testing blood thyroid hormone levels. Several successful treatment options exist including medication, thyroidectomy, radioactive iodine and prescription diet. Prognosis with treatment is generally good.

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Hypocalcemia or Low Calcium Levels in Cats

Hypocalcemia means that the level of calcium in the bloodstream is low. Calcium is an important electrolyte within the body, and is needed for normal function of muscles and nerves. Calcium concentrations in the blood are usually regulated very closely but occasionally the control mechanism is impaired and may result in low blood calcium concentrations.

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Hypokalemia or Low Potassium Levels in Cats

Hypokalemia is a term that refers to a low blood concentration of potassium. Potassium is an important electrolyte within the body and is vital for the normal function of muscles and nerves. In some situations, the normal control of body potassium concentration is lost, resulting in depletion of potassium and low blood potassium concentrations.

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Icterus or Jaundice in Cats

Icterus is also known as jaundice or yellow jaundice. It refers to an excessive accumulation of a yellow pigment in the blood and tissues. When icterus has been present for any length of time, it will discolor many tissues and will become visible as jaundice on most body surfaces, including the skin.

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Cat Behavior Problems - House Soiling

House soiling in cats, also called feline inappropriate elimination, is the most common behavioral complaint of cat owners. Problem behaviors can be urine and/or stool deposited outside of the litter box, or marking behaviors.

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Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Cats

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a syndrome caused by a specific reaction to chronic irritation of the stomach or intestines as a response to an insult, injury or foreign substance. IBD is most commonly diagnosed in middle-aged to older cats. It most commonly causes vomiting; however, if the intestine or colon is involved, chronic diarrhea can be seen. IBD is definitively diagnosed by biopsy of affected tissue. Treatments include a hypoallergenic or easily digested diet, metronidazole, chloramphenicol, and corticosteroids. Helicobacter pylori, a bacteria that invades the stomach lining may be treated with antibiotics if this is a suspected cause of IBD. Long-term prognosis is good if the cat responds to treatment.

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Asthma - Treatment Instructions for Cats

Your cat has been diagnosed with feline asthma, and will require long-term medication for this condition, possibly for life. It is important that you follow the appropriate instructions for this treatment. The instructions specific to your cat have been checked off by your veterinary team.

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Lenticular Sclerosis in Cats

Lenticular sclerosis or nuclear sclerosis is the medical term for a bluish transparent "haze" that develops in the lens of the eye in middle-aged to senior cats.

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Megacolon in Cats

If the nerves to the colon do not function normally, the muscles of the colonic wall will not contract properly. The muscles then become stretched and the colon enlarges in diameter. Rather than being pushed into the rectum in a normal manner, fecal material accumulates in the distended colon, resulting in severe constipation called obstipation. This massive enlargement of the colon and the resulting constipation is called megacolon. Megacolon is often treatable using a medical approach but some cases require surgical intervention called subtotal colectomy.

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Nasopharyngeal Polyps in Cats

Nasopharyngeal polyps are benign idiopathic masses originating from the middle ear that extend either down the eustachian tube or into the external ear. They can cause stertor, nasal discharge, otitis, otic discharge and head tilt. Diagnosis may involve visualization through otoscopic exam or behind the soft palate, but usually needs radiographic evidence or more advanced imaging such as CT or MRI. Treatment involves debulking the mass through traction which has a high rate of recurrence, or more advanced surgery into the bulla to remove the source of the polyp.

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Pancreatitis in Cats

The pancreas produces enzymes to assist in food digestion and hormones such as insulin, which regulates blood sugar or glucose metabolism. When the pancreas becomes inflamed, the condition is called pancreatitis. When pancreatitis occurs in cats, it is often accompanied by inflammation of the liver and intestine. This multi-organ inflammatory process is sometimes referred to as triaditis.

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Polycystic Kidney Disease in Cats

Polycystic kidney disease is an inherited condition in cats that causes multiple cysts to form in the kidneys. These cysts are present from birth. Initially they are very small but they grow larger over time and may eventually disrupt kidney function resulting in kidney failure.

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Pleural Effusion in Cats

Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid within the chest cavity. In pleural effusion, the fluid is not found within the lungs, but instead within the pleural sac. Pleural effusion can have a number of different causes, including diseases of the heart, lungs, or other systemic diseases. Cats with pleural effusion often have rapid, shallow breathing and pet owners may notice increased respiratory effort. Cats may develop open-mouthed breathing in an effort to increase air flow. Some affected cats may also cough. Pleural effusion is typically diagnosed with radiographs. Determining the underlying cause typically requires thoracocentesis.

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Post-Vaccination Sarcoma in Cats

A sarcoma is a term for any cancer of mesenchymal tissues. Mesenchymal tissues include connective tissues such as skin and muscles, bone, cartilage, peritoneum, and blood vessels. Post-vaccination sarcomas usually involve the fibrous connective tissue under the skin and are often fibrosarcomas. It is important to realize that sarcomas have been associated with injections of other medications in cats, so the condition is more correctly called injection-site sarcoma. A biopsy of the lump and histopathology of the abnormal tissue will confirm that it is a sarcoma as opposed to inflammation or infection.

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Pyometra in Cats

Pyometra is defined as an infection in the uterus. Pyometra is considered a serious and life threatening condition that must be treated quickly and aggressively. Pyometra may occur in any sexually intact young to middle-aged cat; however, it is most common in older cats. Typically, the cat has been in heat within the previous 4 weeks.

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Pyothorax in Cats

Pyothorax occurs when pus or inflammatory fluids collect in the space around the lungs causing fever, anorexia, lethargy, and difficulty breathing. It is the result of infection around the lungs caused by wounds either internally or externally, migrating foreign bodies, or lung infection. It is diagnosed through history, physical exam, radiographs, and thoracocentesis. Treatment may involve repeated thoracocenteses or the placement of a chest drain, as well as antibiotics and supportive care. Prognosis is variable but good if the cat survives the critical early stages.

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Ringworm in Cats

Ringworm is the common name given to a fungal infection of the superficial layers of the skin, hair, and nails. The common name of ringworm is somewhat misleading, in that it is not an infection caused by a worm, and the infected areas are not always ring-shaped. Ringworm can be challenging to detect in cats, since the lesions of ringworm may be very mild or even undetectable.

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Seborrhea in Cats

Seborrhea or seborrheic dermatitis is a skin disorder in which the sebaceous glands produce an excessive amount of sebum causing scaly, flaky, itchy, and red skin. It typically affects the back, face and flanks. It may be worse in areas with skin folds such as the feet, neck, lips, armpits, thighs, and underside. Seborrhea can be a primary or secondary disease and is diagnosed by multiple tests to determine the underlying cause. Treatment is based on the cause and may include topical therapies, oral anti-inflammatories and antibiotics.

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Seizures and Epilepsy in Cats

A seizure is a sudden surge in the electrical activity of the brain causing signs such as twitching, shaking, tremors, convulsions, and/or spasms. Epilepsy is used to describe repeated episodes of seizures. With epilepsy, the seizures can be single or may occur in clusters, and they can be infrequent and unpredictable or may occur at regular intervals. Since many different diseases can lead to seizures, it is important to perform diagnostic tests to investigate the underlying cause of the seizures. Treatment of seizures in the cat depends on the nature of the underlying disease.

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Solar Dermatitis in Cats

Solar dermatitis is a skin disease caused by exposure to the sun. It occurs mainly in cats with white or pale patches of skin that are non-pigmented areas. The most commonly affected areas in the cat are the ears, but the nose and the eyelids are sometimes involved. Your veterinarian will recommend taking a tissue biopsy from the affected area if there is any concern that the condition may be progressing to squamous cell carcinoma.

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Thrombocytopenia in Cats

Thrombocytopenia is a term that refers to a decrease in the number of thrombocytes (also known as platelets) circulating in the blood. Any severe or prolonged blood loss, increased internal destruction of platelets, or impaired bone marrow production can lead to acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) deficiency of platelets.

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Vitamin A Toxicosis in Cats

Too much vitamin A or hypervitaminosis A can lead to serious toxicity. While somewhat uncommon in North America, vitamin A toxicity is sometimes diagnosed in cats that are fed primarily table scraps. There seems to be considerable variability in how susceptible individual cats are to this problem. It takes a long time for the clinical signs associated with vitamin A toxicity to develop; symptoms do not usually appear until the dog is at least middle-aged.

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Vomiting in Cats

Vomiting describes the active evacuation of food from the stomach. Vomiting may be caused by disorders of the stomach, but is a clinical sign that can occur with many diseases and problems. Most cases of acute vomiting resolve quickly with simple treatment, without the underlying cause being diagnosed. Any required tests are determined based on physical examination of your cat and questions regarding how your cat has been acting and feeling at home.

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Bladder Stones in Dogs

Bladder stones are rock-like formations of minerals that develop in the urinary bladder. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. Bladder stones can develop within a few weeks or they may take months to form. Most bladder stones are visible on radiographs or an ultrasonic bladder examination. There are three main treatment options for bladder stones: 1) surgical removal; 2) non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion, or 3) dietary dissolution. Prevention is possible in some cases, depending on the chemical composition of the stones.

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Addison's Disease in Dogs - Overview

Addison's disease is the common name for hypoadrenocorticism, caused by decreased hormone production from the outer part or cortex of the adrenal gland.

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Flea Allergy Dermatitis in Dogs

Flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) is a leading cause of allergic reactions in dogs. It is the antigens or proteins in the flea saliva that cause an intensely itchy response to sensitive dogs. Itching and hair loss in the region from the middle of the back to the tail base and down the rear legs (the flea triangle) is often associated with FAD. Strict flea control is essential in the prevention and treatment of FAD. Occasionally corticosteroids are used to reduce the itching in patients with severe signs of FAD.

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Food Allergies in Dogs

Food allergy is one of the five most common allergies or hypersensitivities known to affect dogs. In a pet with an allergy, the immune system overreacts and produces antibodies to substances that it would normally tolerate. In the dog, the signs of food allergy are usually itchy skin or digestive disturbances such as vomiting or diarrhea. The best and most accurate method of diagnosing food allergy is to feed a hypoallergenic diet for eight to twelve weeks as a food trial called an elimination trial.

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Inhalant Allergies (Atopy) in Dogs

An allergy is a state of over-reactivity or hypersensitivity of the immune system to a particular substance called an allergen. Dogs with allergies develop a hypersensitivity reaction or response to substances (for example pollens, flea saliva, or food). With atopy, the dog's immune system overreacts to an airborne or inhaled allergen. After flea allergy dermatitis (FAD), atopy is the second most common type of allergy in the dog. Affected dogs chew, lick and scratch all over, especially on the feet and face.

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Allergies in Dogs

An allergy is a state of over-reactivity or hypersensitivity of the immune system to a particular substance called an allergen. Most allergens are proteins from plants, insects, animals, or foods. In the dog, the most common symptom associated with allergies is itching of the skin, either localized (in one area) or generalized (all over the body). The symptoms of allergies can be confused with other disorders, or occur concurrently with them. Therefore, do not attempt to diagnose your dog without veterinary professional assistance.

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Anal Sac Disease in Dogs

The anal sacs are two small pouches located on either side of the anus at approximately the four o'clock and eight o'clock positions. The walls of the sac produce a foul smelling fluid which is released whenever the dog passes a bowel movement. Bacteria that are normally present in the feces can readily travel up the ducts and enter the sacs resulting in infection. The first sign is often scooting or dragging the rear along the ground. Treatment for impaction involves expressing or emptying the sacs. Antibiotics are often prescribed. Most dogs will require pain relief medications for several days until the swelling and inflammation have subsided. In recurrent or severe cases, surgical removal of the sacs may be necessary.

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Anaphylaxis in Dogs

An anaphylactic reaction or anaphylaxis is an immediate hypersensitivity reaction to a foreign substance, especially a foreign protein. Any foreign substance can produce an anaphylactic reaction. Clinical signs are dependent on the route of exposure (mouth, skin, inhalation, injection, etc.), the amount of antigen and the level of the pet's IgE response. An anaphylactic reaction is a medical emergency and immediate treatment is required.

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Anemia in Dogs

Anemia has a wide variety of causes and appropriate treatments based on the specific cause. Signs of anemia include the loss of the normal pink color of the gums, loss of energy or stamina, weight loss, labored breathing, loss of appetite, a faster than normal heart rate, or signs of blood loss. Several tests are performed to diagnose anemia and additional testing may be required to determine the specific cause. Toxins, infectious diseases, or cancer are some possible causes. Prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause and how early anemia is diagnosed.

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Arthritis in Dogs

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a complex condition involving inflammation and degeneration of one or more joints.

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Panniculitis

Panniculitis is usually visible as a lump, but it is actually an inflammation of the subcutaneous fatty tissue. In younger animals with a single lump, the cause is often blunt trauma. In cats, many cases are due to bite wounds from fighting. Other less common causes include infections, immunological reactions, steroid treatment, diseases of internal organs (e.g., pancreas or liver), poor nutrition, and diseases that affect the blood supply. Panniculitis is diagnosed by fine needle aspiration, biopsy, or full excision. The most common treatment is surgical removal of the lump. Antibiotic therapy may also be required for secondary infection. The goal is to find, treat, and/or remove any underlying cause or trigger of the panniculitis.

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Cervical Stenosis (Wobbler Syndrome) in Dogs

Cervical stenosis is caused by compression of the spinal cord, usually at the base of the neck. Although the spinal cord compression occurs in the neck, the hind legs are often affected first. In severe cases, the dog may suddenly develop total paralysis of all four limbs. The condition is most prevalent in Great Danes and Doberman Pinschers. It is diagnosed by myelography, CT scans, or MRI. Anti-inflammatory drugs and analgesics may relieve the initial discomfort, but the greatest chance of success lies with surgery. Most pets enjoy a relatively normal lifestyle following surgery.

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Bone Diseases of Growing Dogs

There are many causes of limping and lameness in young dogs. Most of these are relatively minor and resolve without medical or surgical intervention. However, there are other causes that are more serious and, if not treated promptly, may result in permanent lameness or lead to debilitating arthritis.

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Campylobacter Infection in Dogs

Campylobacter infection or Campylobacterosis is a bacterial intestinal infection cased by Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter upsaliensis. It is a major cause of human bacterial enteritis although it is considered a normal bacterium in the intestinal tract of many animals and birds.

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Cataracts in Dogs

Inside the eye is a lens that focuses light on the back of the eye, or retina. Vision occurs at the retina. The structure of the eye is similar to a camera, which has a lens to focus light on the film. A cloudy or opaque lens is called a cataract.

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Cherry Eye in Dogs

"Cherry eye" is a common term for prolapse of the third eyelid gland. Many mammals, including dogs, have an "extra" or third eyelid located inside the lower eyelid. This serves as an additional protective layer for the eye, especially during hunting or fighting.

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Canine Coronavirus Disease

Canine coronavirus (CCoV) is not the same virus as SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19. Canine coronavirus disease, known as CCoV, is a highly infectious intestinal infection in dogs, especially puppies. CCoV does not affect people, and causes gastrointestinal problems as opposed to respiratory disease. Crowding and unsanitary conditions lead to coronavirus transmission. Dogs may be carriers of the disease for up to six months (180 days) after infection. The most typical sign associated with canine coronavirus is diarrhea, typically sudden in onset, which may be accompanied by lethargy and decreased appetite. There is no specific treatment for coronavirus. Canine coronavirus vaccines are available. This vaccine will only work for the CCoV type of coronavirus.

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Colitis in Dogs

Colitis simply refers to inflammation of the large intestine or colon. Colitis is most commonly used to describe diarrhea or loose stools associated with the large bowel. Large bowel diarrhea is also used synonymously with colitis.

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Conjunctivitis in Dogs

The conjunctiva is the lining tissue that covers the globe of the eye and lines the eyelids and the third eyelid. Conjunctivitis refers to inflammation of this tissue. The most common clinical signs of conjunctivitis include discharge from the eyes, squinting or excessive blinking, and redness or swelling around the eyes. Conjunctivitis often involves both eyes, but only one eye may be affected in certain conditions. The most common causes of conjunctivitis include bacterial and viral infections, allergies, hereditary conditions, and tumors. The main goal of diagnosis is to determine if the conjunctivitis is a primary or secondary problem, if there is additional disease or damage to the eye, if the condition is allergic, or if it involves the sclera. In order to differentiate many of these conditions, a complete and detailed ophthalmic examination must be performed. Treatment is directed at the specific cause and may include both topical and oral medications. Most dogs have an excellent prognosis in most cases of conjunctivitis.

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Corneal Ulcers in Dogs

The cornea is the transparent, shiny membrane that makes up the front of the eyeball. With a corneal ulcer, fluid is absorbed from the tears into the stroma, giving a cloudy appearance to the eye. The most common cause of a corneal ulcer is trauma. Less common causes of corneal ulcers include bacterial infections, viral infections, and other diseases.

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Retained Testicle (Cryptorchidism) in Dogs

Cryptorchidism (retained testicles) is a fairly uncommon disease that can be passed on to future litters. Clinical signs are uncommon unless complications develop. Testicular cancer and spermatic cord torsion are two complications that can occur with cryptorchidism. Neutering easily corrects the problem.

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Cushing's Disease in Dogs

Cushing's disease is a condition in which the adrenal glands overproduce certain hormones. The medical term for this disease is hyperadrenocorticism. There are three types of Cushing's disease, each of which has a different cause. Identifying the cause is important because the various types of the disease are treated differently and each has a different prognosis.

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Calcinosis Circumscripta and Cutis

Calcium deposits in the skin have a variety of causes. Calcinosis circumscripta is deposition of calcium at bony prominences or, in the footpads and mouth. It is usually a disease of large dog breeds and occurs before two years of age. Calcinosis cutis is induced by local skin damage in susceptible animals and takes two forms: dystrophic or metastatic. The appearance of the skin lesions may lead your veterinarian to suspect calcium deposits as the problem, particularly when the age, breed, and clinical history are considered. Blood tests can help indicate some underlying conditions, but confirmation by skin biopsy may be necessary. While small deposits may be resorbed without treatment over time, surgery is the best choice for larger deposits.

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Papilloma of the Skin

Papillomas are benign, sometimes multiple, tumors caused by viruses. They are commonly known as warts. The virus is transmitted through direct contact from an infected pet or the pet’s environment (e.g., toys, food bowls, or bedding) and gain access to the body when the skin becomes softened by moisture, through cuts and abrasions, or with the assistance of insects. Pets with immature immune systems such as young dogs and puppies, and those that are immune compromised, are more prone to developing papilloma tumors. The tumors often disappear within 1-2 months because the animal slowly develops an immunity to them. However, sometimes they persist, and surgical removal is necessary.

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Ununited Anconeal Process (UAP) in Dogs

The anconeal process is a small projection of bone on the ulna, the longer of the two bones of the forearm. If the anconeal process does not fuse to the rest of the ulna correctly during growth, it causes a condition called ununited anconeal process (UAP). This problem appears to be hereditary mostly in large breeds. When this part of the ulna does not fuse, the elbow joint becomes unstable, causing lameness and pain. Treatment requires surgery. Some form of rehabilitation will improve your dog's chances of making a full recovery from surgery and minimize lameness problems.

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Urinary Incontinence (Urethral Incontinence) in Dogs

Urethral incontinence is the loss of voluntary control of urination. The most common clinical sign is pooling or spotting of urine underneath your dog when it is sleeping or relaxed. Urethral incontinence is diagnosed based on clinical signs, medical history, and blood and urine tests. Bladder radiographs and ultrasonography are often performed to search for bladder stones or other abnormalities affecting urine storage and outflow. Treatment will be based on your pet's specific diagnosis. Medications that increase urethral sphincter tone such as phenylpropanolamine or imipramine, or hormone replacements such as estrogen or diethylstilbestrol are commonly used alone or in combination. In general, the prognosis is good.

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Thrombocytopenia in Dogs

Thrombocytopenia is a decrease in the number of blood platelets (also known as thrombocytes) circulating in the blood. Any severe or prolonged blood loss, increased internal destruction of platelets, or impaired bone marrow production can lead to acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) deficiency of platelets.

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Cystitis in Dogs

By definition, cystitis means inflammation of the bladder. The most common cause of cystitis in dogs is an infection caused by bacteria. Other common causes include bladder stones, tumors or polyps in the bladder, and abnormal anatomy. The most common clinical sign is hematuria or blood in the urine. The first group of tests performed includes urinalysis, urine culture, and bladder palpation. Further diagnostics may include bladder radiographs, ultrasound, and contrast X-rays. Treatment is based on the cause.

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Diabetes Insipidus in Dogs

Diabetes insipidus results in excessive drinking and urination. As many conditions cause these signs, a number of diagnostic tests including bloodwork and urinalysis need to be performed to rule out other causes. After more common causes are ruled out, a modified water deprivation test can confirm disease and an MRI or therapeutic trial can be performed. Diabetes insipidus results from reduced production of ADH from the brain or reduced sensitivity to ADH in the kidney. Treatment depends on the cause of the disease either replacing the lack of ADH with a synthetic replacement or using a hydrochlorothiazide and a low salt diet to decrease urine production.

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Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs - Overview

Diabetes is an inability of the body to regulate blood sugar often caused by an abnormality of the pancreas. It causes increased thirst, urination, appetite, and weight loss. Most dogs have type 1 diabetes caused by total or near destruction of the insulin producing cells and so insulin injections are required for treatment. Diabetes is diagnosed by detecting increased levels of glucose in the urine and blood. Diabetes treatment includes insulin injections and dietary manipulation with regular blood sugar monitoring. Financial costs can be high during the regulation period or if a complication arises and twice daily insulin injections are a lifelong commitment. If dogs receive too much insulin, they can become hypoglycemic resulting in weakness, coma, or even death.

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Tonsillitis in Dogs

Since dogs have tonsils, they can also develop tonsillitis. Tonsillitis has a fairly low rate of occurrence in dogs, and is more common in small breeds of dogs.

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Diabetes Mellitus - Insulin Treatment in Dogs

Diabetes mellitus results from an inadequate production of insulin from the pancreas. The primary treatment is replacement by insulin injections. The body’s response to the injections needs to be regularly monitored by glucose curves over 12-24 hours. There are several glucometers that can be used at home for this purpose. Insulin must be stored and reconstituted carefully to ensure dosing is accurate. Giving subcutaneous injections of insulin can seem daunting at first, but by following the directions in this handout, it will quickly become second nature to both you and your pet. Hypoglycemia can result from too much insulin, not enough food, or excess exercise. Pet owners are trained to recognized hypoglycemia and treat or obtain emergency veterinary attention.

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Tracheal Collapse in Dogs

Tracheal collapse is a result of the weakening of the cartilage rings of the trachea resulting in collapse of the windpipe on inhalation. It is one cause of a chronic cough that can have a characteristic goose honk sound and is common in several small dog breeds. It is exacerbated by tracheal pressure, obesity, excitement, and airborne irritants. Diagnosis may be achieved from a combination of patient history, testing tracheal sensitivity, X-rays, and bronchoscopy. Management involves various medical therapies including corticosteroids, cough suppressants, bronchodilators, and sedatives, as well as weight loss, avoidance of airborne irritants, and avoiding tracheal compression by using a harness instead of a collar. Sometimes surgery is required. Prognosis is varied and dependent on response to medical management.

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Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Dogs

The pancreas is an organ near the stomach and small intestine that produces enzymes needed for digestion, as well as releasing hormones (including insulin) that regulate body homeostasis including blood sugar levels. Dogs with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency are unable to digest nutrients in their diet properly resulting in maldigestion, weight loss, and abnormal feces – usually pale and fatty. The disease can be congenital, genetic, or acquired through pancreatic damage. This condition is most commonly diagnosed in young dogs with chronic diarrhea or fatty looking pale feces, increased appetite and gradual weight loss. A blood test called TLI can diagnose the disease, but B12 and folate levels should also be assessed to fully characterize the condition and guide treatment. Treatment involves life-long administration of pancreatic enzyme replacements with meals and treating any deficiency in cobalamin or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Prognosis is good with treatment although rarely diabetes is associated with the condition.

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Flatulence in Dogs

The excessive formation of gas in the stomach or intestine is referred to as flatulence. The most common cause of flatulence is a change in diet or dietary indiscretion. Most cases of chronic flatulence are caused by a diet that is poorly digested. Diagnosis is based on medical history and clinical signs. Treatment is based on diagnosis and often involves a change in diet. Diet recommendations include one that is highly digestible with low fiber and fat. Medical therapy may also be recommended. Small, frequent feedings are encouraged for dogs that eat rapidly or are hyperexcitable. Your veterinarian will outline a treatment plan specifically designed for your pet.

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Heartworm Disease in Dogs

Heartworm disease is a serious and potentially fatal disease. It is caused by a blood-borne parasite known as Dirofilaria immitis. Adult heartworms may live up to five years and, during this time, the female produces millions of offspring called microfilaria. You can prevent your dog from getting heartworms by using a heartworm preventive.

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Hip Dysplasia in Dogs

Hip dysplasia is a deformity of the hip that occurs during growth. The result is laxity of the joint, followed by degenerative joint disease (DJD) or osteoarthritis (OA), which is the body's attempt to stabilize the loose hip joint. Hip dysplasia is a genetic disease that is affected by factors such as diet, environment, exercise, growth rate, muscle mass, and hormones. It is predominantly seen in larger dogs. Treatment depends upon the pet's clinical signs and amount of discomfort the pet is in.

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Hives (Urticaria) in Dogs

Urticaria or hives is a skin condition characterized by raised red skin welts and is caused by an allergic reaction. These swollen welts can appear anywhere on the body, including the face, lips, tongue, throat, and ears. Urticaria is generally caused by direct contact with a substance that causes an allergic reaction. Most cases of urticaria are self-limiting and cause no significant health threat to your pet. Antihistamines and corticosteroids by injection usually bring about a dramatic improvement, sometimes in as little as a few minutes.

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Uveitis in Dogs

Uveitis is an inflammation of one or more of the structures making up the uvea. It can be very painful and can lead to blindness. It may be a primary condition or a sign of an underlying condition. The usual signs of uveitis are severe pain with an intense reddening of the visible parts of the eye. The eye is usually kept shut and most dogs avoid bright lights. Diagnosis will include a thorough physical exam along with other tests to determine if there is an underlying condition. Treatment is initially aimed at reducing inflammation and providing pain relief and may include other treatments an underlying condition is identified.

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Degenerative Disc Disease in Dogs

The spinal cord is one of the most important and sensitive organ systems in the body. If it is damaged, the nerve cells do not regenerate but are replaced with fibrous or scar tissue. To protect it from damage, the spinal cord runs through a bony canal within the spine and is surrounded by protective bone everywhere except the junction of the vertebrae. These junctions are filled by rubber-like cushions called intervertebral discs. Degenerative disc disease causes spontaneous degeneration of the outer part of the disc, resulting in sudden disc rupture or herniation.

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Degenerative Joint Disease in Dogs

Degenerative joint disease is arthritis caused by deterioration and degeneration of tissues lining joints. Treatment includes regular gentle exercise, anti-inflammatory drugs and other medications, omega fatty acids, chondroprotectants, and possibly other nutraceuticals. Emerging therapies include rehabilitation therapy, acupuncture, and stem cell or platelet rich plasma therapies. Maintaining your dog’s weight can help prevent degenerative joint disease.

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Demodectic Mange in Dogs

Mange is a parasitic skin disease caused by microscopic mites. Two different mange mites cause skin disease in dogs. Demodectic mange, sometimes just called 'demodex' or 'red mange', is the most common form of mange in dogs. Demodectic mange most often occurs when a dog has an immature immune system, allowing the number of skin mites to increase rapidly.

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Demodectic Mange - Dipping Instructions for Dogs

Dipping for demodectic mange may be done by the veterinary health team, or at the owner's home. These instructions will help the dog owner treat their pet for mange in their home.

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Diabetes Mellitus - Principles of Treatment in Dogs

Diabetes mellitus is caused by the failure of the pancreas to regulate blood sugar. In dogs, diabetes mellitus is usually insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (also called Type 1 diabetes). As the name implies, dogs with this type of diabetes require insulin injections to stabilize blood sugar levels.

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Diarrhea Questionnaire and Checklist for Dogs

Diarrhea is a sign of disease, rather than a specific diagnosis. This handout provides some important questions that allows your veterinary health team to formulate an adequate history in a dog presenting with diarrhea.

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Distemper in Dogs

Distemper is a highly contagious viral disease of domestic dogs and other animals such as ferrets, skunks, and raccoons. It is an incurable, often fatal, multisystemic (affecting multiple organs) disease that affects the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems. The disease is spread mainly by direct contact between a susceptible dog and a dog showing symptoms. The main clinical signs are diarrhea, vomiting, thick yellow discharge from the eyes and nose, cough and, in severe cases, seizures and neurological signs. As with most viral infections, there is no specific treatment. Fortunately we have highly effective vaccines to prevent this deadly disease.

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Ear Infections in Dogs (Otitis Externa)

Infection of the external ear canal (outer ear infection) is called otitis externa and is one of the most common types of infections seen in dogs. Some breeds, particularly those with large, floppy or hairy ears like Cocker Spaniels, Miniature Poodles, or Old English Sheepdogs, appear to be more prone to ear infections, but ear infections may occur in any breed. Ear infections are painful.

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Ehrlichiosis in Dogs

Ehrlichiosis is a tick-borne disease primarily from the brown dog tick. Clinical signs can sometimes be missed and can vary from very subtle to severe, even possibly leading to death. Effective treatments are available and depending on the severity of the disease blood transfusions may be required. Many tick preventives are available to prevent this disease from occurring in your dog.

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Electrocardiogram in Dogs

An electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG) is a test that is used to assess the heart. More specifically, an ECG measures the transmission of an electrical impulse through the heart. This test is not painful and is typically performed as an outpatient procedure. Analyzing the electrical impulses produced as the heart beats can help identify a number of different abnormalities within the heart.

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Endocarditis in Dogs

Endocarditis is an infection of a heart valve, most often affecting the mitral or aortic valve. It can arise any time that bacteria enter the bloodstream, though it is more common when the heart valve has already been damaged for some other reason. The clinical signs of endocarditis are often nonspecific in the early stages, but may progress to include signs of heart failure later in the course of the disease. The diagnosis and treatment of endocarditis can present a challenge, requiring multiple tests and prolonged courses of antibiotic therapy.

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Epilepsy in Dogs

Epilepsy is a brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizures without a known cause or abnormal brain lesion (brain injury or disease). A seizure is a sudden surge in the electrical activity of the brain causing signs such as twitching, shaking, tremors, convulsions, and/or spasms. The exact cause of epilepsy is unknown, but a genetic basis is suspected in many breeds. Seizures can vary in appearance and can be focalized or generalized.

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Acute Hemorrhagic Diarrhea Syndrome in Dogs (Hemorrhagic Gastroenteritis)

Acute hemorrhagic gastroenteritis (AHDS) (also known as hemorrhagic gastroenteritis [HGE]), is an acute disorder of dogs characterized by vomiting and bloody diarrhea. AHDS can affect any breed, age, size, or gender of dog, but it is most common in small- and toy-breed dogs. The exact cause of AHDS remains unknown. An elevated hematocrit in combination with a low or normal total protein is an important clue that a dog may have AHDS. Intravenous fluid therapy with potassium and electrolyte supplementation provides the foundation of AHDS therapy. Dogs with AHDS may die, if left untreated.

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Glaucoma in Dogs

Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the pressure within the eye, called the intraocular pressure (IOP) is increased. Glaucoma is caused by inadequate drainage of aqueous fluid. It is classified as primary or secondary glaucoma. High intraocular pressure causes damage to occur in the retina and the optic nerve. Blindness can occur very quickly unless the increased IOP is reduced. Analgesics to control the pain and medications that decrease fluid production and promote drainage are often prescribed to treat glaucoma. The prognosis depends to a degree upon the underlying cause of the glaucoma.

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Congestive Heart Failure in Dogs

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a term that refers to the heart's inability to pump adequate blood to the body. There are many causes of CHF in dogs. The two most common causes are mitral valve insufficiency (MVI), or a leaky mitral valve, the valve between the left atrium and the let ventricle and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM).

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Dilated Cardiomyopathy in Dogs

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a serious and often fatal condition in medium to larger breed dogs. Signs may be sudden or progressive in onset. Some signs include rapid breathing, increased effort with breathing, restless sleeping, coughing or gagging, among others. Early and proper diagnosis is key followed by treatment to give the best quality of life.

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Hematoma of the Ear in Dogs

Ear hematomas are a collection of blood, either fresh or clotted, within the pinna. Excessive or violent shaking causes one or more blood vessels to break, resulting in bleeding into the space between the ear cartilage and skin on the inner surface of the ear. There is often an underlying cause which must be treated but additionally, surgery or drainage should be done to help relieve discomfort. Failure to treat will lead to a misshapen ear.

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Hernia - Hiatal in Dogs

A hernia occurs when one part of your body or part of an organ protrudes through a gap or opening into another part of the body. Many types of hernias occur in the abdominal area. Hiatal hernias, also known as diaphragmatic hernias, form at the opening (hiatus) in the diaphragm where the food tube (esophagus) joins the stomach.

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Birds - Abnormal Droppings

When birds are ill, they will commonly develop a change in their droppings. While not usually specific for any one particular disease, a change in the color, frequency, volume, or character of droppings may indicate a problem that requires immediate veterinary attention.

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Aspergillosis in Birds

Aspergillosis is a fungal infection that commonly causes respiratory disease in pet birds. It can cause both upper (nose, sinuses, eye, and trachea) and lower (lungs and air sacs – a specialized part of the respiratory tract that birds have) respiratory problems or more broadly distributed systemic infections. Aspergillus is normally an environmental contaminant and is not contagious from bird to bird.

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Respiratory Disease in Birds

Respiratory disease is common in birds and can affect the upper respiratory tract or lower respiratory tract. Respiratory tract problems in birds can be caused by infection with bacteria, fungus, or parasites, from exposure to aerosolized toxins or environmental irritants, or from pressure on the respiratory tract from enlarged organs or tumors. Birds can have varying signs with respiratory disease, such as coughing, sneezing, ocular or nasal discharge, or difficulty breathing depending on where in the respiratory tract the problem lies. Teflon, when heated, emits an odorless and colorless gas that is fatal to birds if breathed in. Any bird showing respiratory tract signs should be examined and tested by a veterinarian as soon as possible so that appropriate treatment can be initiated. Administration of over-the-counter medications purchased at pet stores is not recommended for treating sick birds.

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Candida Infections in Birds

Candida albicans is a common environmental fungus that can affect the digestive tracts of birds. It is a common cause of 'sour crop' or a crop infection (ingluvitis), especially in young birds. Candida can be a primary or secondary cause of crop infections. Often, other diseases compromise the bird's immune system and predispose a bird to secondary Candida infection (candidiasis).

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Chlamydophilosis in Birds

Chlamydophilosis, also called "psittacosis", chlamydiosis or "Parrot Fever", is a reasonably common disease of birds. It can occur in any bird but is especially common in cockatiels, Amazon parrots and budgerigars (often referred to incorrectly as parakeets.)

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Chronic Egg Laying in Birds

Chronic egg laying occurs when a female bird lays more than the normal number of eggs or, more commonly, lays repeated clutches of eggs, especially in the absence of a mate. The persistent laying of eggs may lead to malnutrition induced by the chronic depletion of calcium from the body for the production of the egg shells.

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Lameness in Dogs

Lameness refers to an inability to properly use one or more limbs. It is most often associated with pain or injury. The most common causes of acute or sudden lameness in dogs are soft tissue injury (strain or sprain), injury to a joint, bone fracture, or dislocation. Osteoarthritis and hip dysplasia may also cause lameness in dog. Your veterinarian will determine the best course of action based on your pet's condition and the results of diagnostic tests. Lameness of unknown origin is common in dogs of all types and sizes. In some cases, a trial with anti-inflammatory medications may be necessary.

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Lumbosacral Syndrome in Dogs

Cauda equina syndrome or lumbosacral syndrome is a condition caused by the narrowing of the spinal canal and results in compression of the spinal nerve roots; pressure on the nerves that exit the spine cause the clinical signs. This pressure may be due to a narrowed spinal canal caused by arthritis, intervertebral disc herniation, an infection in the disc, trauma, congenital malformation, or a spinal tumor. Dogs with lumbosacral syndrome are in pain. If the clinical signs and radiographs are suggestive of cauda equina syndrome, a myelogram, is performed. Treatment of cauda equina involves either conservative medical treatment or surgical intervention. This is dependent upon the duration and severity of the signs, as well as the owner's finances.

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Malabsorption and Bacterial Overgrowth in Dogs

Bacterial overgrowth is a condition of the small intestine resulting in increased numbers of bowel bacteria. The major concern with bacterial overgrowth is the development of a condition called small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. The bacteria cause damage to the surface of the bowel so digested food cannot be absorbed resulting in malabsorption of nutrients. Malabsorption and SIBO both result in diarrhea but with bacterial overgrowth the diarrhea is chronic. Many cases respond to long term antibiotics.

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Portosystemic Shunt in Dogs

A portosystemic shunt causes a bypass of blood from the gastrointestinal tract directly into the systemic circulation, avoiding the normal detoxifying process that happens in the liver and reducing nutrient input into the liver. Liver shunts can be congenital defects (failure of closure of the ductus venosus or inappropriate vascular development) or acquired (development of extra vessels caused by portal vein hypertension). Clinical signs include failure to thrive (runt), head pressing or other neurological signs especially after high protein meals, delay in anesthetic recovery, increased urination, and vomiting or diarrhea. CBC and biochemistry can be altered in a dog with a portosystemic shunt (e.g., microcytic anemia, low BUN, glucose, elevated ALT) and urinalysis can show abnormal crystals and possibly infection. Bile acids will be elevated. CT, ultrasound, or other more advanced imaging will confirm and locate the shunt. Initial treatment includes a change to a low protein diet, lactulose to absorb ammonia and other toxins, and antibiotics to change the bacterial population of the intestines. Some dogs do well with medical management; however, many need surgical treatment to gradually close off the shunt. Surgery is very successful and dogs return to normal in 2-4 months.

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Abnormal Weight Loss in Dogs

An unplanned weight loss of more than 10% of a dog’s body weight is considered abnormal. Weight loss occurs because calories absorbed from the diet do not meet the calories being used by the body. This can occur due to many factors including excessive cold or physical activity, disease states that heighten the metabolic rate, insufficient calories or poor diet, inability to ingest the diet, inability to digest and/or absorb the nutrients in the diet, and loss of nutrients from vomiting, diarrhea, or polyuria. As well as a thorough history and physical exam, testing such as bloodwork, urinalysis, and imaging may be needed to determine the underlying cause in order to institute targeted treatment.

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Horner's Syndrome in Dogs

Horner's syndrome is a common neurological disorder of the eye and facial muscles and can occur suddenly. Dysfunction of the sympathetic nerves of the eyes and surrounding facial muscles causes Horner’s syndrome and may be due to an injury such as a bite wound or blunt trauma, a tumor, intervertebral disc disease, or middle or inner ear disease. Often times the cause is unknown. If an underlying cause can be identified, treatments will target that; however, many cases will spontaneously recover after some time.

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Hypothyroidism in Dogs

Hypothyroidism is an abnormality of the thyroid gland leading to a reduction in the dog’s metabolic state. This can cause many systemic changes including weight gain, hair loss, lethargy, and susceptibility to infections – most noticeably of the skin and ears. Diagnosis is made by a series of blood tests. Treatment is oral thyroid hormone replacement and is lifelong. Clinical signs and blood hormone levels must be monitored regularly as thyroid hormone requirements can change.

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Hot Spots in Dogs

Hot spots are inflamed and often painful lesions that your dog may develop for a variety of reasons. Treatment is relatively simple but if hot spots recur, it is important to determine the underlying cause. Seasonal grooming, regular brushing, and bathing can help prevent hot spots from developing.

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Icterus or Jaundice in Dogs

Icterus is also known as jaundice or yellow jaundice. It refers to an excessive accumulation of a yellow pigment in the blood and tissues. When icterus has been present for any length of time, it will discolor many tissues and will become visible as jaundice on most body surfaces, including the skin.

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Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Dogs

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic disease of the intestinal tract. Most dogs with IBD have a history of recurrent or chronic vomiting or diarrhea and may have a poor appetite and/or weight loss. IBD is definitively diagnosed by biopsy of affected tissue. Treatments include a hypoallergenic or easily digested diet, metronidazole, chloramphenicol, and corticosteroids. Long-term prognosis is good if the dog responds to treatment; however, IBD sometimes progresses to cancer.

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Insect Bite Reaction in Dogs

Many people and pets are sensitive to the proteins contained in the saliva or venom of biting insects. The most common clinical signs associated with an insect bite reaction include swelling and redness at the site of the bite, hives or multiple red, raised swellings over the body, a swollen face or muzzle, difficulty breathing and vomiting. Some patients will progress to severe respiratory distress and anaphylactic shock. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and history. Treatment typically consists of removal of the stinger or other insect parts, followed by administration of anti-histamines and anti-inflammatory agents, such as corticosteroids. Future insect bites should be avoided because many reactions worsen with repeated exposure to the offending proteins or toxins.

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Cushing's Disease - Treatment Instructions for Dogs

Treatment with this drug involves an initiating phase and a maintenance phase. The initiating phase arrests the disease and restores the dog to a more normal state. Some of the clinical signs, especially increased food and water intake, should stop within the first 1-3 weeks.

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Kennel Cough or Tracheobronchitis in Dogs

Kennel cough is a broad term covering any infectious or contagious condition of dogs where coughing is one of the major clinical signs. It is also referred to as infectious tracheobronchitis. Several viruses and bacteria can cause kennel cough, often at the same time. Because the infection spreads when dogs are housed together, it is often seen soon after dogs have been in kennels, hence the name 'kennel cough'.

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Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS) or Dry Eye in Dogs

Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is a condition that is also commonly referred to as dry eye. It is a common eye condition resulting from inadequate production of the aqueous portion of the tear film by the lacrimal gland or the third eyelid gland. Any condition that impairs the ability to produce adequate amounts of tear film can result in dry eye. Most dogs with KCS have painful, red, and irritated eyes leading to squinting. The treatment of dry eye is to stimulate tear production and to replace tear film. The prognosis for dogs diagnosed with KCS has never been better.

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Chronic Kidney Disease in Dogs

The kidneys have many functions. They principally act to remove waste products from the blood stream, regulate the levels of certain essential minerals such potassium and sodium, conserve water and produce urine. The kidneys have a large amount of spare capacity to perform their various functions so at least two-thirds of the kidneys must be dysfunctional before any clinical signs are seen.

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Laryngeal Paralysis in Dogs

Laryngeal paralysis is a condition that causes dysfunction of the larynx causing reduced ability to breathe deeply and can obstruct the airway. It can be a congenital condition of young dogs or may be due to a neuromuscular disease in older dogs. Clinical signs include coughing, noisy breathing, exercise intolerance, and there may be a change in the sound of the bark. Definitive diagnosis is made thorough examination of the larynx with an endoscope or laryngoscope under sedation. Treatment of mild cases involves environmental management to reduce any stress to the larynx with medications used for flareups. More severe or congenital cases require surgery.

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Leishmaniasis in Dogs

Leishmaniasis is a serious condition spread by flies that can affect dogs, cats, and people. It can severely damage the internal organs or skin and even with treatment, the outcome is often not successful.

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Lens Luxation in Dogs

The lens is the transparent structure within the eye that focuses light on the retina. The lens can fall backwards into the eye known as a posterior luxation, where it rarely causes discomfort, or it can fall forwards into the eye, called an anterior luxation. Anterior luxation blocks the drainage of fluid from the eye resulting in glaucoma or increased intra-ocular pressure (IOP). An anterior (forward) luxation is an emergency and can lead to further complications such as glaucoma and blindness. Surgery can help preserve vision if done promptly, but ultimately some cases may lead to removal of the entire eye. If the lens luxates posteriorly, or falls into the back of the eye, it causes little or no discomfort. These cases may not require any treatment.

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Lick Granuloma in Dogs

Lick ganuloma occurs when a dog obsessively licks at an area on the lower limb, most commonly the wrist or carpal joint of the front limb. This condition is thought to be both physical and psychological in nature. However, there is a definite strong psychological component (e.g., fear, anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive disorder). The condition occurs mainly in medium to large breeds, particularly Doberman Pinschers, Great Danes, Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, and Irish Setters. Most dogs require treatment aimed at the inflammation, infection, and psychological components for resolution.

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Sarcoptic Mange in Dogs

Sarcoptic mange is caused by a parasitic mite that burrows just beneath the surface of the skin. The Sarcoptes mites can bury into the skin of healthy adult dogs and puppies and feeds on material in and on the skin. The presence of the sarcoptic mite causes intense itching. There are several medications that are effective against Sarcoptes.

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Mitral Valve Disease in Dogs

Mitral valve disease is often one of the earliest indicators of heart disease that could lead to heart failure. It is more common in small dogs than large breeds. The earliest sign of a leaking mitral valve is normally a heart murmur, and eventually, congestive heart failure develops. Diagnostic tests will help determine what stage your dog is at and can help guide treatment. Treatment varies depending on the results of the various tests. Many patients can live a good quality of life for many years after diagnosis.

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Vaginitis in Dogs

Vaginitis (inflammation of the vagina) may be concerning when observed but has a good prognosis especially if the underlying cause is identified and treated early. The most common clinical signs of vaginitis include increased frequency of urination, licking of the vaginal area, vaginal discharges of mucus, pus, or blood , and scooting or rubbing of the vaginal area. Diagnosis may be simple based on history and signs, though some tests may be necessary or useful. Most cases of vaginitis respond well to conservative treatment.

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Pain Management for Dogs

In recent years, veterinarians have made great progress in understanding how dogs feel pain and the best ways to manage that pain. Many dogs will instinctively hide their pain as a survival mechanism, which, in the past, lead to incorrect assumptions about the ability of dogs to feel pain.

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Pancreatitis in Dogs

The pancreas is a vital organ that produces enzymes to assist in food digestion and hormones such as insulin, which regulates blood sugar or glucose metabolism. When the pancreas becomes inflamed, the condition is called pancreatitis. Pancreatitis commonly occurs in the dog.

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Common Conditions of Pet Birds

Pet birds often become ill when they are not cared for or fed appropriately. Birds can develop infections with bacteria such as Chlamydia psittaci and parasites such as Giardia. They also commonly suffer from reproductive problems, such as egg binding and reproductive tumors. Many feather-pick when psychologically stressed or sexually frustrated. Birds on all-seed, high-fat diets may become obese and develop fatty liver syndrome. Older birds may develop cloacal papillomas or cancer. Your veterinarian familiar with birds will formulate an appropriate diagnostic and treatment plan if your pet bird becomes ill.

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Vestibular Disease in Dogs

Vestibular disease refers to a sudden, non-progressive disturbance of balance. It is more common in older dogs. Treatment is directed at the underlying cause, if one can be identified. The clinical signs associated with vestibular disease are often most severe during the first twenty-four to forty-eight hours.

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Pannus in Dogs (Chronic Superficial Keratitis)

Chronic superficial keratitis (CSK), or pannus, is a potentially blinding disease affecting the cornea. Any dog breed can be affected by pannus, but it is predominantly seen in German Shepherd dogs, Belgian Shepherd breeds, and Border Collies. Diagnosis is based on medical history and clinical signs. Treatment involves using topical corticosteroids or other immune modulating drugs. If diagnosed early and treatment plans are followed, many dogs can have a good prognosis and live a normal life.

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Parvovirus in Dogs

Parvo, or canine parvovirus (CPV) infection is a relatively new disease that appeared for the first time in dogs in 1978. Because of the severity of the disease and its rapid spread through the canine population, CPV has aroused a great deal of public interest. Two slightly different strains of canine parvovirus, named CPV-2a and CPV-2b, are recognized. They cause the same disease and vaccines give protection against both.

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Pododermatitis in Dogs

Pododermatitis is a term used to describe inflammation of the feet or paws. It can be caused by many disorders including infections, allergies, hormonal disorders, immune-mediated diseases, tumors or cancers, and environmental contaminants. Diagnosis is based on medical history and clinical signs as well as skin cytology, skin scrapings, and hair pluckings. Additional tests may include bacterial and fungal cultures, biopsies, blood and urine tests, hypoallergenic food trials, and radiographs (X-rays). Pododermatitis is not one specific disease and treatment must be directed toward that underlying cause.

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Prostatic Disease in Dogs

Diseases of the prostate can be uncomfortable for a dog particularly with compression of the urethra or colon. In order to diagnose the underlying cause of the enlarged prostate, various tests will be performed including urinalysis and fine needle aspiration of the prostate gland. Treatment plans are determined by the underlying disease.

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Pruritus - Itching and Scratching in Dogs

Pruritus is the medical term for itching and is a common clinical sign of many skin disorders. It is often accompanied by red, inflamed areas of skin and may lead to skin infection called pyoderma. Flea allergy dermatitis, seasonal allergies, atopy, food allergies, contact dermatitis, and sarcoptic mange are some of the most common causes of pruritus in dogs. In the majority of dogs pruritus is seasonal and the most common causes are inhalant allergies, fleabites and food allergies.

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Egg Binding in Birds

Egg binding is not uncommon in birds and may be resolved easily if treated early. Egg binding occurs when the female bird is unable to expel the egg from her body. If a prolonged period has elapsed since the bird began attempting to lay the egg, she may become critically ill. Birds with egg binding may or may not have passed an egg more than 2 days ago, are usually weak, not perching, often sitting low on the perch or on the bottom of the cage, and are straining as if trying to defecate or to lay an egg. Treatment varies depending upon how sick the bird is, as well as the location of the egg and the length of time the bird has been egg bound. Critically ill birds are first treated supportively for shock, and then attempts are made to extract the egg. If your veterinarian cannot see the egg through the vent, surgery under general anesthetic may be necessary to remove the egg from the abdomen. A hysterectomy (removal of the oviduct and uterus) is typically the last choice therapy, when medical and egg extraction through the vent are not possible.

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Crop Infections in Birds

Crop infections are common in pet birds, especially baby birds that are being hand fed. While not usually fatal if treated early, crop infections can be serious and result in a complete loss of appetite.

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Feather Problems in Birds

Feather loss occurs either because the bird is truly losing feathers or because the bird, or its cage-mate, is picking out its feathers. Feather-picking is often a behavioral problem, especially in the larger species of birds (such as cockatoos, macaws, and African gray parrots). However, feather loss and feather-picking can also be caused by diseases that result in irritation or pain for the bird, or damage to, or inappropriate growth of feathers. Your veterinarian may have to many perform several diagnostic tests to rule out potential causes. Treatment of feather loss depends on the cause. Feather loss and feather-picking are complicated problems; for specific advice, your bird should have a thorough work-up by a veterinarian familiar with birds.

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Vomiting in Dogs

Vomiting is the forceful evacuation of stomach contents. It is a clinical sign of a disease. Most cases of acute vomiting resolve quickly with simple treatment, without the underlying cause being diagnosed. Any required tests are determined based on physical examination of your pet and the signs your dog has been displaying at home.

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Von Willebrand's Disease in Dogs

Von Willebrand's disease is a bleeding disorder that results from the lack of von Willebrand factor (vWF), a protein needed to help platelets clump together and seal broken blood vessels. Affected dogs have varying amounts of vWF. Doberman Pinschers are the most common breed affected, but they are mildly affected compared to Scottish Terriers and Chesapeake Bay Retrievers. Dogs can develop bleeding at any time in their life. Certain drugs that interfere with platelet function should be avoided in affected dogs. Treatment of severely affected dogs requires a blood or plasma transfusion. Screening of breeding animals is recommended to reduce the incidence of the disease.

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Kidney Disorders in Birds

Kidneys are paired organs in the abdomen that filter the waste products of metabolism from the blood for excretion from the body. They are also important in maintaining water and electrolyte balance in the body.

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Liver Disorders in Birds

The liver is an important organ that is involved with digesting food, storing and filtering the blood, and with many other metabolic functions. Because it has so many functions, a healthy liver is extremely important.

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Walking Your Dog for Weight Loss

Walking is an excellent way for dogs to burn more calories helping weight loss. A short leash and head halter or harness are recommended to keep the walk going at a consistent, calorie-burning pace. Gradually work up to several 30-minute walks per day. Weigh your dog monthly until his goal weight is reached.

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Yeast Dermatitis in Dogs

Yeast dermatitis or Malassezia dermatitis is an extremely common skin disease in dogs. Clinical signs include itchiness, redness, scaly or crusty skin, and foul odor. Yeast normally live on the skin of dogs but when there is a change in the health of the skin or the immune system of the dog, yeast are more likely to multiply and a yeast infection results. Samples are taken from the affected area and examined under the microscope for confirmation of diagnosis. Treatment involves resolving the underlying disorder and using topical and/or oral medications to treat the yeast.

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Seborrhea in Dogs

Seborrhea or seborrheic dermatitis is a skin disorder in which the sebaceous glands produce an excessive amount of sebum causing scaly, flaky, itchy, and red skin. It typically affects the back, face, and flanks. It may be worse in areas with skin folds such as the feet, neck, lips, armpits, thighs, and underside. Seborrhea can be a primary or secondary disease and is diagnosed by multiple tests to determine the underlying cause. Treatment is based on the cause and may include topical therapies, oral anti-inflammatories, and antibiotics.

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Seizures in Dogs

Seizures are one of the most frequently reported neurological conditions in dogs. A seizure may also be called a convulsion or fit, and is a temporary involuntary disturbance of normal brain function that is usually accompanied by uncontrollable muscle activity. There are many causes of seizures. Once anticonvulsant medication is started, it must be given for life.

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Obesity in Birds

Obesity is a major problem in older birds on seed-based diets and can contribute to diseases such as atherosclerosis (fat deposits in major arteries) and fatty liver disease (hepatic lipidosis). Unlike their wild counterparts, pet birds are not given as much opportunity for daily exercise. Pet birds often burn off very few calories in their daily lives. Many bird owners incorrectly feed their pet birds by offering a diet consisting mostly, or totally of high-fat seeds. Obese birds are extremely susceptible to heart attacks and strokes and have a higher anesthetic risk than normal-weight birds. Switching birds from all-seed diets to a more suitable diet consisting mainly of pellets, with smaller amounts of fresh vegetables and fruit, will decrease its overall daily intake of calories.

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Pyoderma in Dogs

Pyoderma, or skin infections, can be due to bacteria or fungal organisms and are often set up by damage to the skin barrier. Underlying causes such as allergies or hormonal imbalances may predispose your dog to recurrent issues. Treatment can be done with relative ease but must be carried out for the prescribed course.

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Pyometra in Dogs

Pyometra is defined as an infection in the uterus. Pyometra is considered a serious and life threatening condition that must be treated quickly and aggressively. The preferred treatment is to surgically remove the infected uterus and ovaries. Another approach to treating pyometra is the administration of prostaglandins, although the success rate is highly variable.

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Ringworm in Dogs

Ringworm is the common name given to a fungal infection of the superficial layers of the skin, hair, and nails. The common name of ringworm is somewhat misleading, in that it is not an infection caused by a worm, and the infected areas are not always ring-shaped. In the dog, ringworm lesions usually appear as areas of hair loss (alopecia) that are roughly circular.

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Reverse Sneeze in Dogs

Reverse sneezing is the act of forceful convulsant inhalation. It is generally harmless and self-limiting. It is caused by an irritant in the nose, sinuses, or pharynx. Diagnosis is aimed at finding the source of the irritation and ruling out potential triggers. Most cases require no treatment; however, some affected dogs will require anti-inflammatories, antihistamines, or decongestants.

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Polyoma Virus Infection in Birds

The polyomavirus of pet birds belongs to the family Papovavirus, the same group of viruses that causes benign skin tumors (papillomas or warts) in birds. Polyomavirus can cause benign feather lesions in budgies (the so-called French molt or Budgerigar Fledgling disease) or acute death.

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Pox Virus Infection in Birds

Poxviruses can infect many species of birds, and each species of bird may have its own unique species of pox virus (mynah bird pox, canary pox, parrot pox, etc.). Poxviruses can cause several different clinical syndromes, depending upon what part of the body is infected.

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Proventricular Dilatation in Birds

First recognized in the early 1970's, proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) was originally called "Macaw Wasting Disease", as the disease caused a gradual wasting of macaws. Since that time, the disease has been found to affect more than 50 different species of pet birds.

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Recognizing the Signs of Illness in Pet Birds

In the wild, a bird will endeavor to uphold a strong appearance when sick. This is called, survival of the fittest. By the time a pet bird actually shows an owner that it is unwell, it has likely been sick for some time. Many things contribute to ill health. This handout provides bird owners a categorized list of signs that should alert them that their bird is sick.

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Seizures in Birds

Seizures are reasonably common in birds and often observed in Amazon parrots, African grey parrots, budgies, canaries, finches and lovebirds. A seizure may result from any disorder in the brain that causes spontaneous electrical discharge in the nervous system.

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Testing and Diagnostics for Sick Pet Birds

Wellness testing, performed routinely on apparently healthy birds, screens for underlying, inapparent problems. Veterinarians also use test results in conjunction with physical examination findings and the owner’s account of the bird’s history to diagnose illnesses. Blood tests include the complete blood count and chemistry profile. Other tests your veterinarian may use to assess your bird’s health and diagnose disease include Gram’s stain, culture and sensitivity testing, parasitology, X-rays, laparoscopic surgery, cytology, histopathology, virology, and genetic (PCR) testing. Post-mortem examination after a bird dies may be recommended to determine the cause of death.

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Staphylococcal Dermatitis and Staphylococcal Hypersensitivity in Dogs

Staph (or staphylococcal) dermatitis is an inflammatory skin condition that the skin caused by a group of bacteria called Staphylococcus. Any disorder that causes itching or a change in the skin’s environment can create the ideal conditions to allow Staphylococcus to become a problem. Common causes of itching include fleas, inhalant/seasonal allergy, and food allergy. Other diseases that affect the health of the skin include seborrhea and hormonal imbalances (e.g., hypothyroidism). Staph dermatitis is usually sensitive to several oral antibiotics but antibacterial shampoos, sprays, and spot-ons can also be helpful in bringing about rapid control of the infection. Staphylococcal hypersensitivity can also occur and can be difficult to differentiate from staph dermatitis. Staphylococcal bacterin injections can be used in the treatment of hypersensitivity to re-program the dog’s skin preventing the body from over-reacting to the bacteria.

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Aspergillosis in Dogs

Certain species of a common fungus called Aspergillus can infect the nasal cavity and sinuses of dogs, and can even become disseminated to different areas of the body. Dogs affected by exposure to this fungus are usually immunosuppressed. Diagnosis of either form, the nasal form or disseminated form can be difficult, usually requiring X-rays or more advanced imaging such as MRI or CT, as well as tissue biopsies and culture. Treatment of the nasal form involves topical administration of an antifungal agent while the dog is under general anesthesia, although oral antifungals such as itraconazole or fluconazole may also be used. Prognosis is fair to good in cases of localized nasal aspergillosis. Treatment of the disseminated form is more difficult requiring additional antifungals, such as amphotericin b; however these can be harmful to the kidneys.

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Strokes in Dogs

Strokes or cerebral vascular accidents (CVA) are rare in dogs. A stroke is defined as a sudden interruption in blood supply to any part of the brain.

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Autoimmune Skin Disease in Dogs

The term autoimmune is a confusing one. Our bodies have an immune system that protects us from foreign invaders that can cause disease and infection; however, if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks itself by mistake, causing illness.

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Feather Cysts in Birds

A feather cyst is equivalent to an ingrown hair on a human except it is much bigger (as a feather is a much bigger structure compared to a hair). The cysts form due to malformation of the growing feather within the follicle, which is located under the skin.

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Polyfolliculosis in Birds

As with hair, each feather normally emerges from one follicle. Polyfolliculosis (sometimes called Pruritic Polyfolliculosis or Polyfolliculitis) is a malformation of the follicle in which multiple feathers (2-6) grow within one follicle (12 feathers in one follicle has been reported). The word "pruritic" means "itchy".

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Chinchillas - Heath Conditions

Common conditions of pet chinchillas include bite wounds, respiratory diseases, overgrown and impacted teeth, gastrointestinal stasis, bloat, diarrhea, skin problems, and heat stroke. Any deviation of your chinchilla's behavior from normal should be a cause for concern and requires immediate evaluation by your veterinarian.

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Chinchillas - Problems

Generally speaking, chinchillas are fairly hardy animals. However, they do have several unique problems, and understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems. These include fur slip, antibiotic sensitivity, teeth problems, heat stroke, skin problems, and dust bathing for normal grooming.

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Diseases in Ferrets

Common conditions of pet ferrets include diarrhea, intestinal foreign bodies, parasites, heart disease, and various types of tumors. Any variation from normal should be a cause for concern and should be immediately evaluated by your veterinarian.

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Gastrointestinal Diseases in Ferrets

Gastrointestinal disease occurs commonly in ferrets - from dental disease, through gastrointestinal foreign bodies to persistent diarrhea. Some, such as foreign bodies, are readily prevented, while others require considerable diagnostic investigation and may need long-term treatment.

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Hormonal Diseases in Ferrets

There are four major hormonal diseases in ferrets. This handout covers adrenal gland disease and diabetes mellitus. Adrenal gland disease occurs in a large number of ferrets in North America, while diabetes mellitus is a rare, but an important problem.

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Ferrets - Problems

Ferrets have several unique problems; understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.

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Reproductive Diseases in Ferrets

Reproductive disease in ferrets is rare today, as most pet ferrets are spayed or neutered at a young age. One disease that is still occasionally seen in pet ferrets occurs in females that are not spayed. This is called hyperestrogenemia and is a result of persistently high blood levels of estrogen in unspayed females that are not bred or fails to ovulate.

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Respiratory Diseases in Ferrets

Ferrets are susceptible to a number of different diseases of the respiratory system. The symptoms of respiratory disease are similar, regardless of the cause. Some respiratory diseases can be fatal, and it is important to attempt to determine the cause of disease in order to determine a prognosis.

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Skin Diseases in Ferrets

Ferrets commonly develop skin disease, including infections with parasites (fleas, mites, ticks), bacteria, viruses (distemper), and fungus (ringworm). They are also subject to both benign and malignant tumors, including mast cell tumors. Adrenal tumors also cause hair loss and itchy skin in ferrets. All skin problems should be brought to the attention of your veterinarian, who will recommend the most appropriate treatment for the specific problem.

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Hedgehogs - Diseases

Common conditions of pet hedgehogs include external and internal parasites, ringworm, cancer, gastrointestinal diseases and pneumonia.

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Hedgehogs - Problems

Hedgehogs have several unique problems Understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.

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Iguanas - Diseases

When well looked after, and given a good diet and environment, iguanas are reasonably hardy animals. Common conditions of pet iguanas include metabolic bone disease, infectious stomatitis (mouth rot), parasites, respiratory disease, and hypervitaminosis D.

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Iguanas - Problems

Iguanas have several unique disease problems; understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.

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Prairie Dogs - Diseases

Common conditions of pet prairie dogs include obesity, dental disease, respiratory disease, heart disease, and parasites. Prairie dogs can also be afflicted with cancer and ringworm.

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Degenerative Myelopathy in Dogs

Degenerative myelopathy, a disease affecting the spinal cord, results in slowly progressive hind limb weakness and paralysis. It is considered a disease of middle-aged to older dogs including German Shepherds, German Shepherd crosses, Siberian Huskies, and Collies. It will be suspected on the basis of breed, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. Unfortunately, there is no effective treatment and is a progressive, incurable disease.

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Fragmented Coronoid Process (FCP) in Dogs

FCP is a developmental defect of one of the coronoid processes. A genetic component is thought to be involved and males appear to be more commonly affected. It is usually seen in large breed dogs such as Bernese Mountain Dogs, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds. Lameness usually develops in the foreleg of young dogs. Several radiographs of each affected leg, with the leg in different positions, are necessary in order to get an accurate assessment of various bones and joints. Surgery is the treatment of choice for this condition, and its aim is to remove any abnormal cartilage or bone in an attempt to return the joint to a more normal anatomy and function.

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Joint Subluxations in Dogs

A joint luxation is a dislocation or complete separation between the bones that normally articulate to form a joint. Subluxation is the term referring to a partial separation of the joint. The most commonly subluxated joints in dogs include the hip and elbow, although any joint can be affected. Your veterinarian may be suspicious of a joint subluxation based on a history of trauma and physical examination findings such as pain and limping. A radiograph is necessary to definitively diagnose a joint subluxation. In many cases, the joint can be reduced or replaced to its original orientation by a procedure called a closed reduction with prognosis being good if treated immediately.

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Diarrhea in Dogs

Diarrhea is unformed or loose bowel movements, usually with increased amount and frequency. It is a result of faster movement of fecal material through the intestine combined with decreased absorption of water, nutrients, and electrolytes. Diarrhea is not a disease, but rather is a sign of many different diseases. Causes of diarrhea may be determined through a combination of history, physical examination, and fecal testing. Diarrhea is often treated symptomatically with dewormers, probiotics, metronidazole or tylosin, and a special gastrointestinal diet. Chronic diarrhea, that has been present longer than two to three weeks, may prove more difficult to diagnose and treat effectively.

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Ectopic Cilia or Eyelash Problems in Dogs

Ectopic cilia can be an irritating eye problem for many dogs. Growing abnormally through the conjunctiva, they come into contact with the cornea and can cause chronic discomfort to the eye and corneal ulceration. Surgery is necessary to help to correct the problem in order to help dogs live a more comfortable life. The prognosis for surgical correction of this condition is generally good.

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Eyelid Ectropion in Dogs

Ectropion, or outward rolling of the eyelid, can cause problems such as recurring conjunctivitis and drying out of the cornea. The clinical signs are a 'sagging' or 'rolling outward' lower eyelid. A thick mucoid discharge often accumulates along the eyelid margin. Diagnosis is usually made on physical examination. Acquired ectropion can occur in any dog at any age. Testing for hypothyroidism and for antibodies against certain muscle fibers may be done if looking for underlying causes. The treatment for mild ectropion generally consists of medical therapy; if the condition is severe, surgical correction can be performed to shorten the eyelids.

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Common Diseases of Pet Snakes

Common conditions of pet snakes include infectious stomatitis, parasites, skin infections, inclusion body disease, respiratory disease, and septicemia. Infectious stomatitis may not be a primary disease but may be secondary to an injury to the mouth or to husbandry issues such as poor nutrition, improper environmental temperature or humidity, or overcrowding. Both internal parasites and external parasites may cause diarrhea, breathing difficulties, regurgitation, swelling of internal organs, itching, skin irritation, anemia, mouth infection, and weight loss. Cryptosporidiosis can cause thickening of the stomach muscles, impaired digestion, vomiting, and weight loss. Dermatitis is often seen in snakes kept in environments that are too moist and/or dirty. Inclusion body disease is a serious viral disease in which affected snakes cannot right themselves when placed on their backs, may appear to be star gazing, and may be paralyzed. Most respiratory infections in snakes are caused by bacteria but may also be caused by viruses, fungi, and parasites. Septicemia in snakes occurs when bacteria and their toxins proliferate in the blood stream causing lethargy, lack of appetite, open-mouth breathing, red discoloration to the scales, and death.

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Eyelid Entropion in Dogs

Entropion, or rolling in of the eyelids, is seen in many breeds and is considered a hereditary disorder. Most dogs will squint, hold the eye shut, and tear excessively (epiphora) though some patients will develop a mucoid discharge. Entropion can cause additional eye problems, such as corneal ulcers, perforations, or development of pigment on the cornea interfering with vision and can be chronically irritating to the dog. Entropion is corrected with surgery.

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Eye Discharge (Epiphora) in Dogs

Epiphora or excessive tearing from the eyes can be a sign of tear duct blockage or more serious eye problems. Clinical signs include dampness beneath the eyes, reddish-brown staining of the fur beneath the eyes, odor, skin irritation, and skin infection. The facial anatomy of brachycephalic breeds may play a role in this condition. Treatment may include flushing of the nasolacrimal duct, or surgery to open the lacrimal puncta. The prognosis is variable and dependent on whether the underlying cause can be found and treated.

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Nose Bleeds (Epistaxis) in Dogs

Epistasis is the condition of bleeding from the nostril. First aid for epistaxis includes keeping your dog calm and applying an icepack over his nose. Your veterinarian will try to diagnose the cause of the bleeding through a combination of a detailed history, blood and urine tests including clotting tests, blood pressure, X-rays, and sample collections for cultures. There are many potential causes of epistaxis with the most common being trauma and nasal tumors. Treatment is aimed at the underlying condition.

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Frostbite in Dogs

Frostbite is the damage that is caused to the skin and other tissues due to extreme cold. The paws, ears, and tail are the most common tissues to be affected. Diagnosis is usually based on the dog's medical history and physical examination. If you suspect your dog has frostbite, you should seek medical attention immediately. Mild cases of frostbite usually resolve with little permanent damage, while more severe frostbite may result in permanent disfiguration or alteration of the affected tissues. In severe cases, some dogs require surgical removal of the necrotic tissue or amputation.

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Gastritis in Dogs

Gastritis is defined as inflammation of the lining of the stomach. The most common clinical signs associated with gastritis are sudden vomiting and decreased appetite (anorexia). Other clinical signs may include dehydration, lethargy or depression, increased thirst, blood in the vomit or feces, and abdominal pain. In acute cases, only minimal diagnostics such as blood and urine tests are required. Treatment is based on the specific cause. Most acute cases resolve without medical intervention.

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Gastroenteritis in Dogs

Gastroenteritis refers to inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, meaning the stomach and the intestines. It can be caused by infection with bacteria, viruses, or parasites, medications, or even new foods. The condition often causes abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and/or other clinical signs. Gastroenteritis is a diagnosis of exclusion. The principal treatment of gastroenteritis is rehydration and restoration of blood electrolyte balance (sodium, potassium, and/or chloride). Most cases of acute gastroenteritis improve rapidly after rehydration.

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Panosteitis in Dogs

Panosteitis is a painful inflammation of the outer surface or shaft of one or more long bones of the legs. It is sometimes called growing pains. Panosteitis is a condition that affects young, rapidly growing dogs. Panosteitis will be suspected if the patient shows pain when pressure is applied to the affected bone(s). The diagnosis is confirmed by X-rays, which usually show a characteristic increase in the density of the affected bones. Although this disease is self-limiting, and will spontaneously resolve, during episodes of lameness the condition is very painful. At these times, treatment is supportive, using analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs as needed.

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Glomerulonephritis in Dogs

Glomerulonephritis, also known as glomerular nephritis (GN), is a specific type of renal (kidney) disease characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli, which are the tiny structures in the kidneys that act as filters for the blood.

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Dental Disease in Rabbits

Rabbits have incisors plus molars in the back of the mouth for grinding and chewing. Rabbits also have two small, tube-shaped incisors (peg teeth) behind the large upper incisors. Since the teeth continuously grow, the upper teeth must meet the lower teeth to allow for proper wearing of tooth surfaces, preventing overgrowth. All teeth must meet and wear at the same rate as they are growing, or malocclusion with resultant improper tooth wear, and overgrowth of the incisors and/or molars, can occur. Overgrown teeth can cause many problems. leading to pain and infection. Rabbits with chronic dental problems need regular veterinary care including repeated dental filings. Feeding rabbits a diet of mainly high-fiber hay to promote chewing and teeth wear may help reduce the development of dental problems.

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Perianal Fistula in Dogs

Perianal fistula, also known as anal furunculosis is a serious medical condition that most commonly affects German Shepherd dogs. Perianal fistulas are characterized by chronic, purulent, smelly, ulcerating, sinus tracts in the anal region and surrounding skin. More recent studies indicate that the condition is more likely caused by an autoimmune disease. Medical management with immune-modulating drugs is now the preferred therapy. In severe cases, surgery is required to debride or remove as much infected tissue as possible.

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Diseases in Rabbits

Common conditions of pet rabbits include upper respiratory tract infections, internal and external parasites, dental disease, GI stasis, uterine problems, and pododermatitis. Upper respiratory infections are often caused by bacteria including Pasteurella multocida. Rabbits can become infected with various intestinal parasites, as well as external parasites such as ear and fur mites, fleas, and occasionally ticks. Rabbits’ teeth are continuously growing but chewing food, as well as chewing on wooden blocks, branches, and toys, helps them wear their teeth down at a rate equal to their growth. Occasionally, tooth or jaw trauma or disease causes misalignment of the upper and lower jaws and overgrowth of teeth results. Regular yearly check-ups enables early diagnosis and treatment of some rabbit diseases. Whenever a rabbit stops eating, for whatever reason, it is important to take her to see your veterinarian immediately for an evaluation.

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Lenticular Sclerosis in Dogs

Lenticular sclerosis is the term for a bluish transparent haze that develops in the lens of the eye in middle-aged to senior dogs. Vision does not appear to be significantly affected. While the exact mechanism is poorly understood, it appears that the lens gradually becomes harder with age. There is no specific treatment for lenticular sclerosis, nor is treatment necessary.

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Health Problems in Rabbits

Rabbits have unique gastrointestinal tracts and need a high-fiber, low-carbohydrate diet to help keep the normal GI bacteria fermenting their food. When they are fed a diet high in carbohydrate, administered certain types of antibiotics, or undergo a rapid diet change, they can develop life-threatening GI stasis. Rabbits with GI stasis become lethargic, dehydrated, weak, lose weight, and must be treated by a veterinarian as soon as possible. Only rarely do rabbits develop true GI tract obstructions from ingesting foreign objects and require surgery to remove the obstruction. Rabbits are coprophagic, consuming cecotropes overnight that serve as a source of critical protein and vitamins. Rabbits that eat high calcium alfalfa-based diets or high-calcium vegetables are prone to developing bladder stones that must be removed surgically. Bunnies housed at temperatures over 80°F are subject to heat stroke, since they cannot sweat and should be housed inside in a cool place, or if outside, should have plenty of shade and water.

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Diseases in Rodents

Common conditions of pet rodents include respiratory diseases, gastrointestinal problems, dental problems, and tumors. Signs of respiratory disease in rodents include nasal and/or ocular discharge in mild infections, and wheezing, coughing, and open-mouth breathing in severe infections. Gastrointestinal disease, including diarrhea from various causes and gastrointestinal stasis is common in pet rodents. All rodents have teeth that grow continuously throughout their lives. Occasionally, these teeth grow too long and cut into the gums, causing pain, or prevent the mouth from closing properly, which often makes the pet stop eating. Just as in people, cancer is often seen in pet rodents, especially mammary (breast) tumors in rats and mice. Rodents with signs of respiratory or GI disease or evidence of a tumor should be seen by a veterinarian who can properly diagnose and treat the underlying condition.

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Snakes - Problems

Snakes have several unique problems and understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems.

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Turtles - Box - Diseases

Common conditions of pet turtles include Vitamin A deficiency, respiratory diseases, abscesses, shell infections and fractures, and parasites.

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False Pregnancy or Pseudopregnancy in Dogs

False pregnancy, phantom pregnancy, pseudo-pregnancy or pseudocyesis are all terms that refer to a display of maternal (mothering) behavior combined with the physical signs of pregnancy following estrus ("heat") in a female dog that is not actually pregnant. A false pregnancy may occur in a dog, regardless of whether or not she was mated.

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Bearded Dragons - Diseases

The bearded dragon is a well-known lizard currently considered one of the best pet lizards. If they are well looked after, with a good diet and proper environment, bearded dragons are reasonably hardy animals. Common healthconditions of pet bearded dragons include metabolic bone disease,infectious stomatitis (mouth rot), parasites, respiratory infections, andadenovirus infection.

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Skin Fold Pyoderma in Dogs

Skin fold pyoderma occurs in a few select breeds of dogs though dogs that are obese can also suffer from this condition. Signs of skin fold infection include discharge, redness, and a foul or musty odor. While it can be simple to treat, proper hygiene can help prevent it from happening or recurring.

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Bearded Dragons - Problems

Bearded dragons have several unique problems; understanding these problems will allow you to better care for your pet and minimize future health care problems. These problems include Salmonella, avascular necrosis, abscesses, and dystocia.

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Health Problems in Guinea Pigs

Guinea pigs are generally hardy, healthy animals but are susceptible to certain diseases. They cannot make their own vitamin C and require supplementation or they may develop scurvy. Guinea pigs get various tumors, particularly skin and mammary tumors. Guinea pigs also get abscesses (accumulations of pus and bacteria) in lymph nodes, skin, muscles, teeth, bones, and internal organs. They are very prone to development of urinary calculi that form in the bladder, kidneys, or ureters which may become lodged, causing a life-threatening obstruction. In addition, guinea pigs often are affected by ringworm and can get fleas and lice. Barbering is a problem, usually associated with boredom, in which the guinea pig chews or barbers its own hair or the hair of its cage-mate. Pododermatitis, or bumblefoot, in which sores develop on the bottom of the feet from pressure, is common in overweight animals housed on wire-bottomed or dirty cages that abrade the feet.

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Reptiles - Dystocia

Dystocia (difficult birth or egg binding) happens when the female reptile is unable to pass her eggs or fetus. It is a reasonably common problem in reptiles and can be life threatening. It is a problem seen with snakes, turtles and lizards. It is caused by a variety of factors.

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Reptiles - Gout

Gout is a disease in which the metabolism of uric acid is defective. Uric acid is a breakdown product of nitrogen, formed when protein is metabolized in the body. Uric acid is the form in which reptiles excrete their nitrogen wastes.

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Turtles - Aquatic - Diseases

Common conditions of pet turtles include Vitamin A deficiency, respiratory diseases, abscesses, shell infections and fractures, and parasites.

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Diabetes in Cats - Testing and Monitoring

Testing for diabetes includes confirming hyperglycemia and glucosuria while looking for other conditions by checking a CBC (anemia, infection), biochemistry profile (hepatic disease, pancreatitis) and a urinalysis (urinary tract infection). Monitoring includes regular glucose curves and additional exams and testing based on the pet owner’s monitoring of their cat’s clinical signs in the home setting. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine are sometimes used in diabetic monitoring and urine testing for infection may be recommended.

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Diabetes in Dogs - Testing and Monitoring

Testing for diabetes includes confirming hyperglycemia and glucosuria while looking for other conditions by checking a CBC (anemia, infection), biochemistry profile (hepatic disease, pancreatitis) and a urinalysis (urinary tract infection). Monitoring includes regular glucose curves and additional exams and testing based on the pet owner’s monitoring of their dog’s clinical signs in the home setting. Urine glucose testing and fructosamine are sometimes used in diabetic monitoring and urine testing for infection may be recommended.

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Epistaxis in Horses

Epistaxis means simply bleeding from the nose. The term can therefore cover anything from a tiny trickle down one nostril to a heavy gushing from both nostrils. Blood that appears at the nostril can originate from anywhere in the upper or lower respiratory tract including the sinuses or other closely related structures of the head.

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Canker in Horses

Canker is now rarely seen but is a serious infection of the horn of the foot, that results in the formation of a soft, moist, disintegrating growth of horn. It most commonly affects the hind feet and is most often seen in horses kept in wet tropical climates, or in large draught type horses.

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Contracted Tendons in Horses

The term 'contracted tendons' describes a condition where the leg is excessively straight, usually at the fetlock or coronary band, i.e., corono-pedal joint, but it occasionally also affects the knees.

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Equine Metabolic Syndrome (EMS)

This condition takes its name from the comparable human condition, metabolic syndrome. It is a complex, multi-factorial problem involving numerous body systems. In humans it increases the risk of stroke, heart attack, diabetes and other potentially serious medical disorders.

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Heart Murmurs in Horses

A heart murmur is an abnormal sound that originates from the heart valves and can be heard with a stethoscope skillfully placed over the heart valves.

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Tying-up - (Monday Morning Disease in Horses)

This is a common condition, invariably associated with exercise, that most frequently causes hindlimb stiffness, but can affect any of the muscles of the skeleton. Other medical terminologies include 'acute myopathy' and 'rhabdomyolysis'.

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Navicular Syndrome in Horses

Navicular 'disease' is really a group of related conditions affecting the navicular bone and associated structures in the foot. There are several possible causes of pain in and around the navicular bone.

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Osteochondrosis (OCD) in Horses

Osteochondrosis (OCD) is a failure of the bone underlying the smooth articular cartilage inside the joints, i.e. the subchondral bone, to form properly from the skeleton's cartilage template.

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Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction in Horses

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID, previously known as Equine Cushing's Disease) is a complex condition associated with abnormal function of a small, hormone-producing organ, the pituitary gland, that lies at the base of the brain.

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Pus in the Foot (Gravel) in Horses

Infection in the foot is by far, the most common cause of acute (sudden), single-leg lameness in the horse. Infection results in painful inflammation and pus (abscess) formation.

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Quittor in Horses

Quittor is an old term for a condition that involves death and destruction (necrosis) of the collateral cartilages of the foot (see our information sheet on sidebones), following an infection in the foot (see our information sheet on pus in the foot).

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Recurrent Airway Obstruction in Horses

RAO (previously called chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or COPD) is a relatively common cause of coughing and nasal discharge in stabled horses. In long-standing cases the horse may have difficulty in breathing and its chest and abdomen can be easily seen to move, hence the even older name 'heaves'.

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Ruptured Bladder in Horses

This is one of the conditions that affect young foals during their first few days of life. It is potentially life-threatening. Some cases occur when the full urinary bladder wall tears in response to high pressure during delivery whereas others result from incomplete development (closure) of the bladder wall leaving a hole in the wall.

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Sidebones in Horses

Sidebones are a name for a condition that results in ossification of the collateral cartilages of the foot, i.e., the cartilages transform into much harder and less flexible bone.

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Spavin in Horses

'Spavin' is a common condition in ponies and horses of all ages. There are two forms of spavin; bone spavin and bog spavin. Both affect the hock.

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Urticaria or Hives in Horses

Urticaria or 'hives' is a common skin condition in which well-defined raised areas (lumps, wheals or rings) occur in the superficial dermis (an upper layer of the skin). Mostly these areas are quite small but in severe cases whole areas such as the face or one or more of the limbs may become swollen.

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Whistling and Roaring in Horses

The terms 'whistler' and 'roarer' are used to describe horses that make an abnormal respiratory noise during exercise. The noise is heard during inspiration (i.e., breathing in) and may be anything from a high pitched soft whistle to a harsh 'roar'.

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Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in Cats

AIHA or IMHA is a life-threatening condition which may occur as a primary condition or secondary to another disease. Most cats with AIHA have severe anemia, their gums will be very pale, they will be listless and tire more easily, be anorexic and will have increased heart and respiration rates. Diagnosis involves CBC, biochemical profiles, urinalysis, and X-rays or ultrasound of the abdomen and chest. Treatment may involve blood transfusions and other medications over a prolonged course of time. The prognosis may be better if an underlying cause can be identified.

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Spondylosis Deformans in Cats

Spondylosis deformans is a condition that affects the vertebral bones of the spine and is characterized by the presence of bony spurs or osteophytes along the edges of the bones of the spine. In cats, spondylosis deformans lesions are often found along the thoracic spine. Spondylosis deformans is a chronic condition that is associated with aging and most cats are free of symptoms. This condition is usually diagnosed from radiographs of the spine. Treatment recommendations depend on the individual cat and whether or not it is showing any clinical signs.

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Spondylosis Deformans in Dogs

Spondylosis deformans is a condition that affects the vertebral bones of the spine and is characterized by the presence of bony spurs or osteophytes along the edges of the bones of the spine. The most common places that spondylosis deformans lesions develop are along the thoracic vertebrae (chest), especially at the junction between the rib cage and the abdomen, in the lumbar spine and in the lumbosacral spine. Spondylosis deformans is a chronic condition that is associated with aging and most dogs are free of symptoms. This condition is usually diagnosed from radiographs of the spine. Treatment recommendations depend on the individual dog and whether or not it is showing any clinical signs.

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Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia in Dogs

AIHA or IMHA is a life-threatening condition which may occur as a primary condition or secondary to another disease. Most dogs with AIHA have severe anemia, their gums will be very pale, they will be listless and tire more easily, be anorexic and will have increased heart and respiration rates. Diagnosis involves CBC, biochemical profiles, urinalysis, and X-rays or ultrasound of the abdomen and chest. Treatment may involve blood transfusions and other medications over a prolonged course of time. The prognosis may be better if an underlying cause can be identified.

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Distichia or Distichiasis in Dogs

Distichiae can be an irritating eye problem for many dogs. The abnormally growing extra eyelashes can cause chronic discomfort to the eye and potential vision problems. A thorough eye examination, including fluorescein staining of the cornea and an assessment of the degree of tear production in the eyes, is usually necessary to assess the extent of any accompanying corneal injury and to rule out other causes of the dog's clinical signs. Various treatment options are available in order to help dogs live a more comfortable life. The prognosis is excellent for those dogs that do not show any clinical signs associated with their distichiae. For dogs with mild clinical signs, the likelihood that the condition can be managed with conservative treatment is good.

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Histoplasmosis in Dogs

Histoplasmosis is an infection caused by histoplasma, a fungus found in moist soils and especially prevalent around the Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, and St. Lawrence Rivers, as well as the southern Great Lakes. Fungal spores are inhaled or ingested and cause infection in many sites including the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, eyes, joints, and spleen. Clinical signs can include fever, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, coughing or trouble breathing, diarrhea, and straining while defecating. Diagnosis includes routine bloodwork, urinalysis, X-rays, antigen testing, and cytology or histopathology. Treatment requires long term anti-fungal medication such as itraconazole. Prognosis is guarded depending on how ill the patient is. This disease is transmissible to humans, especially if they are immunocompromised.

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Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome in Dogs

Brachycephalic airway syndrome occurs in dogs that have anatomic abnormalities causing a more flat-faced appearance. These changes in anatomy cause restrictions in the dog's upper airways (including stenotic nares, elongated soft palate, nasopharyngeal turbinates, and hypoplastic trachea), and can eventually lead to everted laryngeal saccules and laryngeal collapse. Common signs of this condition are open mouth breathing and snoring, but can worsen, leading to exercise intolerance, coughing, gagging, or retching. Diagnosis of elongated soft palate, everted saccules and hypoplastic trachea requires deep sedation or general anesthesia. Dogs with this condition may require only corticosteroids, oxygen, and environmental management, but surgery to correct the palate, nares, and everted saccules may need to be performed. Prognosis is good to guarded depending on the severity of the disease but is greatly improved if the problem is noted and treated surgically in younger dogs.

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in Cats

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is a long-term inflammatory condition that affects the pulmonary or respiratory system. This condition is irreversible and is slowly progressive. This condition may also be known as "chronic bronchitis".

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (Chronic Bronchitis) in Dogs

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or chronic bronchitis is a slowly progressing inflammatory condition of the lower airways. It most often affects small or toy breeds from middle-aged and senior dogs. The most common sign is a chronic dry cough. Exercise intolerance, collapsing, wheezing, or noisy breathing may develop as the condition worsens. Airborne irritants/allergens, chronic respiratory infections, obesity and dental disease are implicated in triggering the disease. Diagnosis can be made by ruling out other causes of cough through a minimum diagnostic database, radiographs, bronchoscopy, and cytology and culture of lung material obtained through tracheal wash or bronchoalveolar lavage. Treatment aims to minimize inducing factors including weight loss and avoidance of environmental irritants, as well as employing medications such as corticosteroids and bronchodilators. If using long-term, these medications are most often given using metered dose inhalers to manage the disease successfully.

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Valley Fever in Dogs

Valley fever is a fungal infection caused by Coccidioides immitis. In the US it is most commonly found in the southwestern states with California and Arizona being most affected. The most common method of infection is through inhalation of spores that are released by disturbance of soil such as while digging. These spores infect the lungs forming spherules. Dogs with healthy immune systems avoid serious infection by walling off the spherules; however, those that have weakened immune systems can become ill. The two main forms of disease are primary and disseminated. The primary disease occurs in the lungs causing coughing, lethargy, decreased appetite, fever, and depression. Disseminated disease occurs when the fungus migrates to different areas of the body including the bones, joints, eyes, and rarely the brain. Diagnosis includes blood tests (including titer tests) and radiographs. Treatment requires prolonged anti-fungal agents and is generally successful in respiratory or primary cases; however, patients affected by the disseminated form have a more guarded prognosis.

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Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome in Cats

Brachycephalic airway syndrome occurs in cats that have anatomic abnormalities causing a more flat-faced appearance. These changes in anatomy cause restrictions in the cat's upper airways (including stenotic nares, elongated soft palate, hypoplastic trachea), and can eventually lead to everted laryngeal saccules. Common symptoms of this condition are open mouth breathing and snoring, but can worsen, leading to exercise intolerance, coughing, gagging, or retching. Diagnosis of elongated soft palate, everted saccules, and hypoplastic trachea will require deep sedation or general anesthesia. Cats with this condition may require only corticosteroids, oxygen, and environmental management, but surgery to correct the palate, nares, and everted saccules may need to be performed. Prognosis is good to guarded depending on the severity of the disease.

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Bacterial Pneumonia and Bronchopneumonia in Dogs

Bacterial pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung usually caused by bacterial or viral infection but can be caused by inhalation of an irritant. Typical signs of bacterial pneumonia include fever, difficulty breathing, lethargy and coughing. As these can also be caused by other disease, diagnostics include a full physical exam, blood work, radiographs, and may also require bronchoscopy with sample collection for cytology and bacterial culture and sensitivity. Treatment includes the use of one or more antibiotics that ideally would be selected using the results of a culture. Affected dogs may also require hospitalization and supportive care including intravenous fluids. Prognosis is good to guarded depending on the presence of predisposing factors.

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Bandage and Splint Care in Cats

Bandages or splints may be necessary at times if your cat has a wound or a broken bone. Bandages can be readily applied to the head, neck, chest, tail, or lower legs of a cat. Splints are usually applied below the knee on the back leg or below the midpoint of the humerus on the front leg. Home care is very important and you will need to monitor for changes closely. Your veterinarian will give you more specific directions for the length of time that your cat has to be bandaged.

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Bandage and Splint Care in Dogs

Bandages or splints may be necessary at times if your dog has a wound or a broken bone. Bandages can be applied to the head, neck, chest, tail, or lower legs of a dog. Splints are usually applied below the knee on the back leg or below the midpoint of the humerus on the front leg. Home care is very important and you will need to monitor for changes closely. Your veterinarian will give you more specific directions for the length of time that your dog has to be bandaged.

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Taurine in Cats

Taurine is a type of amino acid, which are the building blocks of all proteins. Taurine is an essential amino acid in the cat. Taurine deficiency will lead to feline taurine retinopathy, a weakening of the muscle cells in the heart, causing a condition called dilated cardiomyopathy and may cause digestive disturbances. Taurine was first recognized as a necessary component of the cat's diet in the late 1980's. Since then, all diets that are formulated for cats are supplemented with enough taurine to meet the normal cat's needs. A healthy cat that eats a high-quality cat food that is appropriate to its life stage does not require supplementation. Supplemental taurine is used as a treatment for dilated cardiomyopathy in cats. There are isolated occurrences of taurine-deficient dilated cardiomyopathy in dogs. Your veterinarian may have preferred supplement manufacturers that he or she will recommend.

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Uveitis in Cats

Uveitis is an inflammation of one or more of the structures making up the uvea. It can be very painful and can lead to blindness. It may be a primary condition or a sign of an underlying condition. The usual signs of uveitis are severe pain with an intense reddening of the visible parts of the eye. The eye is usually kept shut and most pets avoid bright lights. Diagnosis will include a thorough physical exam along with other tests to determine if there is an underlying condition. Treatment is initially aimed at reducing inflammation and providing pain relief and may include other treatments if an underlying condition is identified.

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Anisocoria in Dogs

Anisocoria is a condition in which the pupils of the eyes are different sizes; in other words one pupil is larger than the other. Anisocoria is a sign of an underlying disease condition, therefore there are several different causes. Your veterinarian will begin by conducting a physical examination of your dog, including a detailed examination of the structures of the eye. The treatment and prognosis of anisocoria depend entirely on the underlying cause of the condition, and treatment will be tailored specifically to the diagnosis.

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Anisocoria in Cats

The pupil constricts or dilates (enlarges) according to the amount of light that enters the eyes, with both pupils normally dilating in dim light and constricting in bright light. Anisocoria is a condition in which the pupils of the cat's eyes are different sizes. Anisocoria is a sign of an underlying disease condition and therefore there are several different causes. Your veterinarian will begin by conducting a physical examination of your cat, including a detailed examination of the structures of the eye. The treatment and prognosis of anisocoria depends entirely on the underlying cause of the condition, and specific treatment will be tailored specifically to the diagnosis.

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Degenerative Joint Disease in Cats

Degenerative joint disease is arthritis caused by deterioration and degeneration of tissues lining joints. It is an under-recognized condition in cats. Treatment involves modification of the home environment, regular gentle exercise, anti-inflammatory drugs and other medications, omega fatty acids, chondroprotectants, and possibly other nutraceuticals. Maintaining your cat’s weight can help prevent degenerative joint disease.

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Heart Murmurs in Dogs

A heart murmur is caused by turbulent blood flow within the heart. Sometimes a murmur is determined to be 'innocent' or 'physiologic', while other times the murmur is determined to be pathologic or caused by disease. An innocent or physiologic heart murmur is a heart murmur that has no impact on the dog's health. With structural heart disease, there is some sort of abnormal structure or defect that is disturbing the flow of blood, creating turbulence.

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Heart Murmurs in Cats

A heart murmur is an abnormal heart sound, usually heard by listening to the heart with a stethoscope. Sometimes a murmur is determined to be 'innocent' or'physiologic', while other times the murmur is determined to be pathologic or caused by disease.

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Glaucoma in Cats

Glaucoma is a disease of the eye in which the pressure within the eye, called the intraocular pressure (IOP) is increased. Intraocular pressure is measured using an instrument called a tonometer.

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Brucellosis in Dogs

Brucellosis is a contagious bacterial infection that can cause a number of reproductive problems, including infertility and abortion in breeding dogs. Male dogs infected with brucellosis develop epididymitis, an infection of the testicle. Female dogs infected with brucellosis develop an infection of the uterus. The infection is usually diagnosed by a blood test (rapid slide agglutination test). Treatment with antibiotics is not significantly effective and infected dogs should be removed from the breeding population. In the United States, brucellosis is a reportable disease.

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Horner's Syndrome in Cats

Horner's syndrome is a common neurological disorder of the eye and facial muscles and can occur suddenly. Dysfunction of the sympathetic nerves of the eyes and surrounding facial muscles causes Horner’s syndrome and may be due to an injury such as a bite wound or blunt trauma, a tumor, intervertebral disc disease, or middle or inner ear disease. If an underlying cause can be identified, treatments will target that; however, many cases will spontaneously recover after some time.

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Blepharitis in Dogs

Blepharitis means inflammation of the eyelid and can affect one or both eyes. The affected eyelid will usually be red, swollen, and itchy. Any condition that can cause irritation of the eyelids can lead to blepharitis. Common causes of blepharitis include congenital abnormalities, allergies, infections, tumors, and occasionally other inflammatory disorders. Your veterinarian will conduct an eye examination to determine the extent of the eyelid involvement. Specific treatment for blepharitis will depend on the underlying cause of the disorder and the prognosis depends on the cause.

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Blepharitis in Cats

Blepharitis means inflammation of the eyelid. In most cases, the inflammation affects the outer two layers of the eyelids; in some cases it may spread to involve the inner lining or palpebral conjunctiva.

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Luxating Patella in Cats

The patella connects the femur and the tibia and is normally located in a groove called the trochlear groove found at the end of the femur. A luxating patella is a kneecap that 'pops out' or moves out of its normal location. The patella will luxate or slip out of the groove during extension of the leg if the trochlear groove is too shallow, if the cat is bow-legged or cow-hocked, or if the point of attachment on the tibia is off-center. There are 4 grades of patellar luxation, and a higher grade means that the condition is more severe. Your veterinarian will diagnose a luxating patella by feeling the displaced kneecap during palpation of the leg. A luxating patella can be corrected surgically, especially if the patella luxates frequently. If your veterinarian performs surgery before arthritis or other knee injury occurs, the prognosis is excellent.

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Herpesvirus Infection in Cats (Feline Viral Rhinotracheitis)

Feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR) is an infectious disease caused by feline herpesvirus type-1. It is a major cause of upper respiratory disease in cats, and is the most common cause of conjunctivitis. The typical symptoms of FVR involve the nose, throat, and eyes, and include sneezing, nasal congestion, conjunctivitis, excessive blinking, squinting, and discharges from the eyes and nose that range from clear and watery to thick and purulent (containing yellow/green pus). Treatment consists of supportive care, hydration of the environment, and control of secondary bacterial infections with antibiotics and antibiotic eye medications. An effective vaccine exists and is recommended for all cats.

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Coat and Skin Appearance in the Healthy Dog

The general condition of your dog's skin and coat are good indicators of its health. A healthy coat should be shiny and smooth, not brittle or coarse, and healthy skin should be supple and clear, not greasy, flaky or bumpy. Selective breeding has led to the development of dogs with a myriad of different coat characteristics requiring varying grooming needs. In order to maintain the skin and hair in a healthy state, your dog also requires a properly balanced diet.

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Coat and Skin Appearance in the Healthy Cat

The general condition of your cat's skin and coat are good indicators of her health. A healthy coat should be shiny and smooth, not brittle or coarse, and healthy skin should be supple and clear, not greasy, flaky, or bumpy. Selective breeding has led to the development of cats with a myriad of different coat characteristics requiring varying grooming needs. In order to maintain the skin and hair in a healthy state, your cat also requires a properly balanced diet.

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Insulinomas in Ferrets

An insulinoma is a tumor that involves the beta cells of the pancreas. Beta cells are the cells that produce the hormone insulin. Insulinomas are surprisingly common in ferrets.

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Xylitol Toxicity in Dogs

Xylitol is a naturally occurring substance that is widely used as a sugar substitute. Chemically, it is a sugar alcohol, and found naturally in berries, plums, corn, oats, mushrooms, lettuce, trees, and some other fruits.

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Grape, Raisin, and Currant Poisoning in Dogs

Recently, veterinarians discovered that grapes, raisins and currants (fruits from Vitis species) can cause kidney failure in dogs.

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Bite Wounds in Dogs

Bite wounds are a common injury veterinarians see. If left alone, wounds have the potential to become more complicated, as they are likely infected and delaying treatment only makes it worse. Antibiotics, pain medications, and stitches may all be involved in the post-bite wound care.

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Urate Bladder Stones in Dogs

Urate bladder stones are most commonly the result of a genetic abnormality seen in breeds such as Dalmatians. Other causes of urate bladder stones include liver diseases such as portosystemic shunts. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. There are two primary treatment strategies for treating urate bladder stones in dogs: non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion, and surgical removal. Dogs that have experienced urate bladder stones will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life. Dogs with liver disease will need to be treated appropriately prior to addressing urate bladder stone management.

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Struvite Bladder Stones in Dogs

One of the more common bladder stones found in dogs is composed of magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate (also known as struvite stones). Struvite bladder stones usually form as a complication of a bladder infection caused by bacteria, and if the urine becomes exceptionally concentrated and acidic. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. There are three primary treatment strategies for struvite bladder stones: 1) feeding a special diet to dissolve the stone(s), 2) non-surgical removal by urohydropropulsion and 3) surgical removal. Dogs that have experienced struvite bladder stones will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life.

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Cystine Bladder Stones in Dogs

Cystine bladder stones appear to be the result of a genetic abnormality that prevents a dog from reabsorbing cystine from the kidneys. While bladder stones in general are somewhat common in dogs, cystine bladder stones are rare. Your veterinarian may be able to palpate the stones or may need to perform imaging studies such as a bladder ultrasound or a contrast radiographic study. There are two primary treatment strategies for treating cystine bladder stones in dogs: urohydropropulsion or surgical removal. Dogs that have developed cystine bladder stones in the past will often be fed a therapeutic diet for life. Unfortunately, cystine stones have a high rate of recurrence, despite careful attention to diet and lifestyle.

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Calcium Oxalate Bladder Stones in Dogs

One of the more common uroliths in the dog is composed of calcium oxalate crystals. Current research indicates that urine high in calcium, citrates, or oxalates and is acidic predisposes a pet to developing calcium oxalate urinary crystals and stones. The most common signs that a dog has bladder stones are hematuria and dysuria. The only way to be sure that a bladder stone is made of calcium oxalate is to have the stone analyzed at a veterinary referral laboratory. Unfortunately, calcium oxalate stones have a somewhat high rate of recurrence, despite careful attention to diet and lifestyle.

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Wobbly Hedgehog Syndrome

Wobbly Hedgehog Syndrome (WHS) is a progressive degenerative neurological disease of African and European hedgehogs sometimes referred to as progressive paresis/paralysis. It has been noted with increasing frequency since the mid 1990's. It slowly degrades the animal's muscle control perhaps similar to that of MS in humans.

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Eclampsia in Cats

Eclampsia is essentially hypocalcemia in a cat who has recently given birth. It can quickly progress from weakness to tremors, seizures, or paralysis. Treatment involves immediate intravenous injections of calcium and other drugs. Recovery from eclampsia is usually rapid and complete if treated early. Fortunately, it is uncommon in cats.

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Eclampsia in Dogs

Eclampsia is hypocalcemia in a dog who has recently given birth. Breeds such as Chihuahuas, Pomeranians, Toy Poodles, Miniature Pinscher, Shih Tzu, and other small breeds are at an increased risk. Eclampsia is considered an emergency and immediate medical attention should be sought. It can quickly progress from weakness to tremors, seizures, or paralysis. Treatment involves immediate intravenous injections of calcium and other drugs. Recovery from eclampsia is usually rapid and complete if treated early.

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Burr Tongue in Dogs

Burr tongue is the common name for burdock tongue (also called granular stomatitis or granulomatous glossitis) caused by ingestion of the burrs from the burdock plant (Arctium lappa L.), a form of thistle. Burdock plants typically bloom in July and August and during these months produce the greatest number of burrs. Burdocks have a prickly head that easily catches on fur or clothing and was the inspiration for Velcro or hook-and-loop fasteners.

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Treatment Instructions for Asthma and Bronchitis in Cats

Asthma is a chronic disease that causes narrowing and swelling of the airways in the lungs. Most cats with asthma will experience coughing, difficulty breathing, open-mouth panting, and other signs of respiratory distress. Death may occur in severe cases that remain untreated. It is important to acclimatize the cat to the inhaler for inhalant therapy to be effective.

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Tympanic Membrane Rupture and Middle Ear Infection in Dogs

Damage to the ear drum and middle ear infections can cause a variety of signs affecting the skin and nervous system and can cause pain. A thorough ear examination will be performed and may require sedation or anesthesia. Your veterinarian may need to thoroughly flush the ear and may prescribe oral antibiotics and topical antibiotics to be applied in your dog’s ears. Treatment can be up to two months long with frequent recheck examinations. The prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause.

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Vestibular Disease in Cats

Vestibular disease in cats is a condition in which a cat suddenly develops incoordination, falling or circling to one side, involuntary darting of the eyes back and forth (nystagmus), a head tilt, and often nausea or vomiting. These clinical signs usually appear suddenly, many times in less than an hour. Many conditions can cause the disease and the vast majority of cases are diagnosed as idiopathic.

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Hydrocephalus in Toy Breed Puppies

Hydrocephalus is an excess of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that has leaked inside the skull, leading to brain swelling. There are two main types of hydrocephalus in dogs: congenital and acquired. Small, miniature, and toy breeds seem to be more affected. In the acute or early phases of hydrocephalus, treatment is directed toward reducing CSF production and inflammation. For acquired hydrocephalus, therapy is focused on treating the underlying cause and may range from medications to surgery to radiation therapy. Your veterinarian will discuss your pet’s prognosis and treatment options based on its individual condition.

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Helping Your Dog with Osteoarthritis

Twenty percent of all dogs (regardless of age) are affected by osteoarthritis, making it the most common chronic disease they face. It is important to develop a plan with your veterinarian to help your dog maintain a good quality of life despite his arthritis. Arthritis management plans include weight loss, exercise, medications, diet, supplements, and modification of the home environment to ease your dog’s daily activities.

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Helping Your Cat with Osteoarthritis

It is estimated that 90% of cats over age 10 are affected by osteoarthritis, making it the most common chronic disease cats face. It is important to develop a plan with your veterinarian to help your cat maintain a good quality of life despite her arthritis. Arthritis management plans include weight loss, exercise, medications, diet, supplements, and modification of the home environment to ease your cat’s daily activities.

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Joint Support and Disease-Modifying Osteoarthritis Drugs (DMOADs) in Dogs

Osteoarthritis is a progressive, degenerative disease of the joints. Although dramatically under-recognized, OA is actually one of the most common chronic diseases of dogs. In addition to diet modifications, exercise, weight loss, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, management strategies for OA may include a disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug such as PSGAG. PSGAG is a disease modifying agent that slows cartilage destruction, promotes cartilage healing, and helps lubricate the joints. It is given as a series of injections that can be given by an owner at home. A positive response is expected at the end of the first course of treatment. Injections are typically used long-term as PSGAG is well-tolerated by most dogs.

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Joint Support and Disease-Modifying Osteoarthritis Drugs (DMOADs) in Cats

Osteoarthritis is a progressive, degenerative disease of the joints. Although dramatically under-recognized, OA is actually one of the most common chronic diseases of cats. In addition to diet modifications, exercise, weight loss, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, management strategies for OA may include a disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug such as PSGAG. PSGAG is a disease modifying agent that slows cartilage destruction, promotes cartilage healing, and helps lubricate the joints. It is given as a series of injections that can be given by an owner at home. A positive response is expected at the end of the first course of treatment. Injections are typically used long-term as PSGAG is well-tolerated by most cats.

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Nutraceuticals for Joint Support in Cats with Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a progressive, degenerative disease of the joints. It is one of the most common chronic diseases that affect cats. By some estimates, 90% of cats over the age of 10 are affected by OA. Nutraceuticals are food or food products that reportedly produce health benefits. Nutraceuticals that are beneficial in cats with osteoarthritis include omega 3 fatty acids, microlactin, and ASU. It is important to discuss supplement use with your veterinarian to determine the best ones for your cat.

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Nutraceuticals for Joint Support in Dogs with Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a progressive, degenerative disease of the joints. It is one of the most common chronic diseases that affect dogs. By some estimates, 20% of dogs of all ages are affected by OA. Nutraceuticals are food or food products that reportedly produce health benefits. Nutraceuticals that are beneficial in dogs with arthritis include omega 3 fatty acids, microlactin, and ASU. It is important to discuss supplement use with your veterinarian to determine the best ones for your dog.

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Canine Influenza: The Dog Flu

Canine influenza virus (CIV) is primarily the result of two influenza strains: H3N8 from an equine origin and H3N2 from an avian origin. Both of these strains were previously known to infect species other than dogs, but are now able to infect and spread among dogs. The canine influenza virus is easy to transmit.

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Polycythemia Vera

Polycythemia vera is a rare disease of dogs and cats in which too many red blood cells are produced by the bone marrow. Dogs and cats with polycythemia vera may have a red blood cell population of 65% to 75% of the total blood volume. The blood becomes very thick and has difficulty moving through the small blood vessels in the body and your pet may feel tired, sluggish, and weak. Polycythemia can be a potentially fatal disease, but fortunately if discovered early enough, treatment may be possible. If left untreated, polycythemia vera can affect the heart. Treatment is aimed at reducing red blood cell numbers by removing some of the blood and administering medication to slow down production of RBCs in the bone marrow.

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Gastrointestinal Stasis in Rabbits

Rabbits that are not eating may have developed gastrointestinal (GI) stasis. GI stasis is typically caused by a physiologic change in bacteria. Rabbits may stop eating because they are sick with other diseases, such as dental problems or kidney disease, or when they are stressed, overheated, painful from injuries or arthritis, or uncomfortable from other gastrointestinal problems such as bacterial, viral, or parasitic intestinal infections. Some rabbits get GI upset when they are eating too much carbohydrate and not enough fiber. Supportive care treatment either in or out of the hospital will be prescribed for a rabbit with GI stasis. Prevent GI stasis by feeding your rabbit a high-fiber, hay-based diet with supplemental vegetables, a small amount of pellets and fruit. Have your rabbit checked regularly by a veterinarian who can monitor for the occurrence of other underlying diseases that may contribute to the development of GI stasis.

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Retained Testicle (Cryptorchidism) in Cats

Cryptorchidism (retained testicles) is a fairly uncommon disease that can be passed on to future litters. Clinical signs are uncommon unless complications develop. Spermatic cord torsion are two complications that can occur with cryptorchidism. Neutering easily corrects the problem.

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Constipation in Dogs

Constipation is infrequent or difficult passage of stool, and is typically a temporary condition. Many constipated dogs will experience straining or pain when attempting to defecate.

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Walking Dandruff in Rabbits

Walking Dandruff (cheyletiellosis) in rabbits is caused by a common rabbit fur mite (Cheyletiella parasitovorax). The mite's effects are called "walking dandruff" because these large, whitish mites crawl across the skin and fur, and cause excessive flaky skin on a rabbit.

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Living with a Deaf Dog

Dogs can suffer from hearing loss due to increasing age, chronic ear infections, or may be born with a defect. Deafness in dogs can present some challenges but overall, they can have a fairly healthy, normal life. Training is still possible by making some modifications and incorporating hand signals into the training regime. It is important to take their deafness into account when considering their safety and ensure that they are never off leash on or near a street.

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Living with a Deaf Cat

Cats can suffer from hearing loss due to increasing age, chronic ear infections, or may be born with a defect. Deafness in cats can present some challenges but overall, they can have a fairly healthy, normal life. It is possible to teach your cat household routines by incorporating hand signals and body language into your communication with your cat. It is important to take their deafness into account when considering their safety.

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Pets with Disabilities: Overview

Our culture is experiencing an ongoing evolution of the human-animal bond: the family-pet relationship. We live in increasingly intimate contact with the animals who share our lives, and veterinary care has progressed to a level that supports longer life expectancy in pets than ever before. Pets are now living longer and better because we are able to feed them better and protect them from infectious diseases and parasites. This means we are witnessing a surge in the segment of the pet population that is senior and geriatric. In fact, it is not so rare to see cats 20 years of age and older and small- to medium-breed dogs in their late teens.

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Mothball Toxicity in Dogs

Mothballs are solid pesticides that slowly release a gas vapor to kill and repel moths, their larvae, and other insects from stored clothing and fabric. Mothballs are sometimes also used to repel snakes, mice, and other animals, although this use is not recommended and can be harmful to pets, children, and the environment.

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Cranial Cruciate Ligament Repair: Tibial Plateau Leveling Osteotomy and Tibial Tuberosity Advancement

One of the most common injuries to the knee of dogs is tearing of the cranial cruciate ligament (CCL). This ligament is similar to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in humans. There are actually two cruciate ligaments inside the knee: the cranial cruciate ligament and caudal cruciate ligament. They are called cruciate because they cross over each other inside the middle of the knee.

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Anorexia in Dogs

A dog that is not wanting to eat or is not eating, is a dog who has a potentially life-threatening medical condition. Many conditions can lead to the inability of your dog to eat or for your dog to lose his appetite completely. It is important to find the underlying cause so that an appropriate treatment plan can be created. Appetite stimulants may be prescribed and in some cases a feeding tube may be placed by your veterinarian. Decreased food intake or any change in eating habits warrants investigation by your veterinarian.

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Anorexia in Cats

A cat that is not wanting to eat or is not eating, is a cat who has a potentially life-threatening medical condition. Many conditions can lead to the inability of your cat to eat or for your cat to lose her appetite completely. It is important to find the underlying cause so that an appropriate treatment plan can be created. Appetite stimulants may be prescribed and in some cases a feeding tube may be placed by your veterinarian. Decreased food intake or any change in eating habits warrants investigation by your veterinarian.

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Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS) or Dry Eye in Cats

Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS) is a condition that is also commonly referred to as dry eye. The medical term means inflammation of the cornea and surrounding tissues from drying. It is a common eye condition resulting from inadequate production of the aqueous portion of the tear film by the lacrimal gland and/or the third eyelid gland. In chronic cases, there may be a history of eye injury, ulcers, or conjunctivitis.

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Inner Ear Infection (Otitis Interna) in Dogs

Otitis interna can cause some significant signs in your dog, including reluctance to eat, head tilt, alteration in balance, and reduced hearing on the affected side. If the specific cause can be identified, such as bacterial or fungal infection, treatment could involve long-term medications. Less commonly, surgery may be needed. Many dogs will respond to treatment and recover well.

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Inner Ear Infection (Otitis Interna) in Cats

Otitis interna can cause some significant signs in your cat, including drooling from the side of the mouth, difficulty eating, inability to blink, and drooping eyelids, lips, and nostril on the affected side. If the specific cause can be identified, such as bacterial or fungal infection, treatment could involve long-term medications. Less commonly, surgery may be needed. Many cats will respond to treatment and recover well.

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Nutrition for Cats with Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease is frequently diagnosed in aging cats. Nutrition plays an important role in managing CKD in cats. Commercial diets for cats with CKD are developed support kidney function while maintaining body condition. A kidney support diet contains less protein, sodium, and phosphorus and increased omega-3 fatty acids. Your veterinarian will help you choose an appropriate formulation for your cat which will slow the progression of this disease, contributing to both life expectancy and quality of life.

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Acute Caudal Myopathy (Limber Tail)

Acute caudal myopathy results from overuse of the tail, causing a strain or sprain of the muscle groups used for tail wagging. Possible scenarios leading to limber tail include hard/vigorous play within the previous 24 hours, prolonged swimming, or active hunting within the past few days. The tail may droop limply between your dog's rear legs, or it may stick straight out behind him for a short distance before drooping. Uncomplicated acute caudal myopathy is treated with rest and anti-inflammatory medication.

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Tympanic Membrane Rupture and Middle Ear Infection in Cats

Damage to the ear drum and middle ear infections can cause a variety of signs affecting the skin and nervous system and can cause pain. A thorough ear examination will be performed and may require sedation or anesthesia. Your veterinarian may need to thoroughly flush the ear and may prescribe oral antibiotics and topical antibiotics to be applied in your cat’s ears. Treatment can be up to two months long with frequent recheck examinations. The prognosis is variable depending on the underlying cause.

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Megaesophagus

Megaesophagus is a disorder in which the esophagus dilates and loses motility. When esophageal motility is decreased or absent, food and liquid accumulate in the esophagus and have difficulty getting into the stomach. There are two types of megaesophagus: congenital and acquired. Regurgitation is the most common sign of megaesophagus. Dilation of the esophagus can often be diagnosed by radiographs. Overall treatment is focused on managing the symptoms by preventing regurgitation and allowing food to move through the gastrointestinal tract in order to be digested.

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Cerebellar Hypoplasia in Cats

Cerebellar hypoplasia is a developmental condition in which the cerebellum of the brain fails to develop properly. It most commonly occurs when a pregnant cat becomes infected with feline panleukopenia virus and passes the infection to her unborn kittens. Since the cerebellum is responsible for purposeful movement and coordination, the symptoms of this condition may not become apparent until the kitten starts to try to stand or walk on its own. There is no treatment; however, kittens with cerebellar hypoplasia are not infectious to other kittens or cats, are not in any pain, and will learn to adapt to their disability over time.

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Nutritional Concerns for Dogs with Bladder Stones

Bladder stones can be a significant problem for dogs and finding out what type of stone is present will help determine if it can be dissolved, as well as make a plan to prevent recurrence. Bladder stones set the stage for chronic urinary tract infection, and some bladder stones (struvites) grow more quickly if the dog already has a urinary tract infection. Diet selection play a large role in this and it is important to follow veterinarian recommended nutrient profiles to prevent recurrence.

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Nutrition for Dogs with Colitis

Colitis is a fairly common problem in dogs manifesting as diarrhea. Dealing with colitis may boil down to working with your veterinarian to find a nutrient profile that allows your dog's gastrointestinal system to function as normally as possible. A nutrient profile which contains a high quality, high digestibility protein, low to moderate fat content, and high digestibility carbohydrates. Fiber may also play a role to benefit the colon of dogs with chronic colitis. Work with your veterinarian to assess your dog's clinical and nutritional history, create a nutritional plan, and then evaluate the success of the plan.

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Progressive Retinal Atrophy in Dogs

Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), is a group of degenerative diseases that affect photoreceptor cells in the eyes. With this disease, the cells deteriorate over time, eventually leading to blindness in the affected dog. There are two main forms of PRA recognized in dogs, an early onset, inherited from called retinal dysplasia and a late onset form. PRA is an inherited disease that occurs in many breeds of dogs. When a dog develops PRA, it, and its parents and siblings, should be removed from breeding programs. As PRA progresses, your dog’s vision gradually worsens until he becomes completely blind. There is currently no effective treatment available for PRA. For the average family pet, blindness is not as significant as it would be in a human. and a blind dog will rely more on its other senses.

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs

Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA), is a heart defect that occurs when the ductus arteriosus fails to close down at birth.

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Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Dogs

Diabetic ketoacidosis is a life-threatening condition that results from inadequate insulin or interference of insulin action on the body preventing glucose regulation. This causes a buildup of ketone bodies that, at a high enough level, will cause a metabolic derangement resulting in inability to retain water, weakness, vomiting and weight loss, among other signs. Treatment usually requires intensive hospitalized care including IV fluids, potassium supplementation, short acting insulin injections, and regular monitoring of glucose and electrolytes. In dogs already diagnosed with diabetes, ketoacidosis can often be prevented with regular glucose monitoring performed at home.

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Masticatory Myositis in Dogs

Masticatory muscle myositis (MMM) is an immune system disorder in which the dog's immune system identifies the dog's own muscle tissue as foreign and attacks it.

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Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE) in Dogs

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an immune-mediated disease in which a dog's immune system begins to attack her own tissues.

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Clostridial Overgrowth and Enterotoxicosis in Dogs

Clostridial enterotoxicosis is a complex and poorly understood syndrome characterized by diarrhea that is associated with the bacteria Clostridium perfringens (CP). It is associated with either acute or chronic diarrhea. Clostridial enterotoxicosis is not caused by the bacteria directly, but rather by a toxin produced by the bacteria. Most cases of intestinal bacterial overgrowth are treated on an outpatient basis using antibiotics, nutrition, and probiotics.

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Myasthenia Gravis in Dogs

Myasthenia gravis is a disease in which there is a malfunction in the transmission of signals between the nerves and muscles. Dogs with myasthenia gravis exhibit extreme weakness and excessive fatigue. There are two forms: inherited and acquired, and treatment is with a class of medication that inhibits a nervous system enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. Anti-acetylcholinesterase medication and immunosuppressive therapy will likely be required for the life of the dog.

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Zinc-Responsive Dermatosis in Dogs

The mineral zinc plays an important role in many substances in the canine body, and zinc-deficiency can result in many problems for dogs.

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First Aid for Hot Spots in Dogs

Hot spots are inflamed and often painful lesions that your dog may develop for a variety of reasons. Treatment is relatively simple and may include the use of topical or oral steroids, antihistamines, bandaging the area, and using an E-collar to prevent further licking or chewing. If hot spots recur, it is important to determine the underlying cause. Seasonal grooming, regular brushing, and bathing can help prevent hot spots from developing.

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Amyloidosis in Dogs

Amyloidosis occurs when proteins called amyloid are deposited outside of cells in various tissues and organs, causing tissue and organ dysfunction.

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Ataxia in Dogs

The word ataxia means incoordination within the nervous system. There are several different forms of ataxia, depending upon where in the nervous system the abnormality occurs. The most common sign of ataxia, regardless of the cause, is an abnormal gait in which the dog is very unsteady on his feet. Treatment of ataxia will be influenced by the root cause. Pain management, supportive care, and creating a safe environment (e.g., preventing access to stairs) are cornerstones of ataxia treatment.

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Atrioventricular Valve Dysplasia in Dogs

AV valve dysplasia describes a developmental malformation of the mitral or tricuspid valve, and may be referred to by the specific valve that is affected.

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Atrial Fibrillation in Dogs

Atrial fibrillation describes very rapid contractions or twitching of the heart muscle, specifically in the atria. Most of the time, atrial fibrillation in the dog occurs secondary to heart disease. Sometimes, in large breed dogs, atrial fibrillation will occur as a primary heart problem.

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Coonhound Paralysis

Coonhound paralysis describes a sudden inflammation of multiple nerve roots and peripheral nerves in dogs, and occasionally cats. It can be caused by an immune reaction to raccoon saliva. However, it can also occur in dogs who have not encountered a raccoon. In this case it is called “acute idiopathic polyradiculoneuritis” and its cause is often unknown. Dogs with coonhound paralysis start out with a stiff-legged gait that rapidly progresses to paralysis of all four legs. Severely affected dogs may need to be treated in a hospital setting but most dogs are treated at home once their diagnosis is confirmed and they are stable. The majority of dogs recover fully from coonhound paralysis.

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Aortic Stenosis in Dogs

Aortic stenosis is a heart disease that is present at birth. Dogs affected with aortic stenosis have a narrowing at the aortic valve of the heart. This narrowing forces the heart to work abnormally hard to force blood through the narrowed valve. The clinical signs of aortic stenosis vary depending on how severe the stenosis is; some dogs remain asymptomatic throughout their life, while other dogs begin showing clinical signs at an early age and can experience sudden death. The treatment of aortic stenosis depends upon the severity of the condition.

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Arthritis in Cats

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a complex condition involving inflammation and degeneration of one or more joints. Cats with OA experience pain and inflammation in various joints that interfere with the activities of daily living.

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Pyelonephritis (Bacterial Infection of the Kidney) in Dogs

Pyelonephritis is an upper urinary tract infection. Many dogs have no clinical signs when they have pyelonephritis, although they may have signs of lower urinary tract disease. Pyelonephritis is usually caused by a bacterial infection that moves up the urinary tract from the bladder to the kidneys. There are several developmental, medical, and procedural conditions that increase the risk for pyelonephritis. Antibiotics are used and to treat pyelonephritis and are chosen based on testing the urine for bacteria and antibiotic sensitivity. Overall, dogs with sudden pyelonephritis do well and return to normal health unless they also have kidney stones, chronic kidney disease, urinary tract obstruction, or cancer in the urinary tract.

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Systemic Hypertension in Dogs

Systemic hypertension describes high blood pressure throughout the entire body, and this means a sustained elevation in systolic pressure of 140mmHg or greater, in diastolic pressure of 90mmHg or greater, or both.

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Aortic Thromboembolism in Dogs

An aortic thromboembolism results from a blood clot that is dislodged and travels within the aorta, becoming lodged in a distant location. This causes severely reduced blood flow to the tissues receiving blood from that particular part of the aorta, leading to decreased oxygen in the tissues. Aortic thromboembolism is a rare occurrence in dogs.

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Pulmonary Thromboembolism (Blood Clots in the Lungs) in Dogs

Pulmonary means lung, and the word thromboembolism describes a blood clot that has moved through the blood vessels, lodged in one of the pulmonary arteries, and blocked blood flow into the portion of the lung served by that artery. This seems to be more common in medium to large-breed dogs, and generally in middle-aged to older dogs.

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Brain Injury in Dogs

Brain injuries are devastating and, unfortunately, often fatal. The typical signs of brain injury in a dog include altered consciousness that may signal bleeding in the skull, decreased blood flow to the brain, or fluid causing swelling within the brain itself. There are many potential causes of brain injury and treatment will always be determined by the underlying problem that led to the injury.

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Brain Tumors in Dogs

Several studies suggest that the prognosis for a dog with a primary brain tumor may be improved significantly by surgical removal of the tumor, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy.

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Cervical Intervertebral Disc Disease in Dogs

The intervertebral discs allow movement in the spine and act as shock absorbers between the vertebrae. If the disc degenerates or is damaged in some way, the disc may bulge and put pressure on the spinal cord and/or the roots of the spinal nerves that come off the sides of the spinal cord. This pressure can cause symptoms ranging from severe pain to weakness to paralysis. There are several breeds that experience a higher frequency of the condition. The severity of a dog’s clinical signs depends upon several factors. Conservative management with pain relievers and anti-inflammatory medication is recommended with a gradual onset of clinical signs or when clinical signs are limited to pain and/or a mildly wobbly gait. Surgery is recommended when there are repeated episodes of neck pain, when neck pain is severe, when there are severe nervous system deficits, or when the dog has not responded to conservative treatment.

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Ulcerative Keratitis in Dogs

Ulcerative keratitis is a kind of inflammation that occurs in the cornea of the eye. Some breeds seem to develop them more commonly, particularly breeds with short muzzles and prominent eyes like Chinese Pugs, Boston Terriers, etc. The signs of ulcerative keratitis depend somewhat on the cause and how long the condition has been present. There are many potential causes of ulcerative keratitis, including trauma, infection, and abnormal tear production. Antibiotic ointment or drops will be prescribed, and it is important to prevent additional trauma to the cornea. Superficial corneal ulcers typically heal within 5 to 7 days.

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Septic Arthritis in Dogs

Septic arthritis occurs when bacteria or another infectious agent is introduced into one (or more) joints, leading to painful inflammation. The signs of septic arthritis include heat, swelling, and pain in one or more joints. There will typically be decreased range of motion in the affected joint(s), as well as fever, lethargy, and lack of appetite. Any trauma that penetrates a joint, or a surgery involving a joint, can result in septic arthritis. Osteoarthritis, other joint damage, or injections into a joint can also be root causes of septic arthritis. If a dog with septic arthritis is very ill, they will be hospitalized and treated as necessary to become stabilized. Joint fluid will be extracted for bacterial culture and the joint may be lavaged to minimize joint damage. Your veterinarian may prescribe a broad-spectrum antibiotic while waiting for the results of the bacterial culture and sensitivity panel. Once the best choice of antibiotic is made, the medication will typically be given for at least 4 to 8 weeks. In addition, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) or a narcotic may be given to relieve pain and inflammation.

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Lymphocytic Plasmacytic Gastroenteritis in Dogs

Lymphocytic plasmacytic gastroenteritis is a form of inflammatory bowel disease in which inflammatory cells infiltrate the lining of the stomach and intestine as the result of an abnormal immune response.

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Lymphocytic Plasmacytic Gastroenteritis in Cats

Lymphocytic plasmacytic gastroenteritis is a form of inflammatory bowel disease in which inflammatory cells infiltrate the lining of the stomach and intestine as the result of an abnormal immune response.

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Pulmonary Hypertension in Dogs

Pulmonary hypertension means that the peak blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs is much higher than normal.

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Pulmonary Hypertension in Cats

Pulmonary hypertension means that the peak blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs is much higher than normal.

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Narcolepsy in Dogs

A narcoleptic episode involves sudden collapse and loss of movement in which the pet literally falls asleep, often while physically active, then wakes up abruptly and proceeds as if nothing happened. Narcolepsy is usually a congenital/inherited condition but it may also be associated with other diseases such as obesity or immune system disorders. Narcolepsy is not painful or life threatening, but diagnosis by a veterinarian is still important. There is no definitive cure for narcolepsy, but help is still available for affected dogs. Although you may not be able to stop the episodes, by identifying possible patterns that precipitate the incidents, you may be able to reduce the frequency and severity of events.

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Protein-Losing Enteropathy (PLE) in Dogs

The word enteropathy means any disease of the intestinal system. Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is not a specific disease, but rather describes a group of diseases that cause the loss of proteins from the bloodstream into the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

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Protein-Losing Enteropathy (PLE) in Cats

The word enteropathy means any disease of the intestinal system. Protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) is not a specific disease, but rather describes a group of diseases that cause the loss of proteins from the bloodstream into the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

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Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) in Cats

A UTI occurs when bacteria travel up the urethra and into the bladder. Cats with UTIs generally attempt to urinate very frequently whenever they go to the litter box, they may strain to urinate, they may cry out or whine when urinating if it is painful, and there may be blood visible in their urine.

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Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) in Dogs

Urinary tract infections occur when bacteria ascend up the urethra and into the bladder. UTIs are fairly common in dogs.

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Coccidioidomycosis in Dogs

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal disease caused by the soil fungus Coccidioides immitis. The early signs of coccidioidomycosis include fever, lethargy, lack of appetite, coughing, and joint pain.

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Fibrocartilaginous Embolus/Emboli (FCE) in Cats

An FCE is the acute death of part of the spinal cord, caused by the embolus of fibrocartilaginous material. The material blocks arteries and/or veins in the spinal cord and may originate in an intervertebral disk or the marrow found within a vertebral body.

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Fibrocartilaginous Embolus/Emboli (FCE) in Dogs

An FCE is the acute death of part of the spinal cord, caused by the embolus of fibrocartilaginous material. The material blocks arteries and/or veins in the spinal cord and may originate in an intervertebral disk or the marrow found within a vertebral body.

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Coccidioidomycosis in Cats

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal disease caused by the soil fungus Coccidioides immitis. The early signs of coccidioidomycosis include fever, lethargy, poor appetite, coughing, and joint pain.

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Abscesses in Cats

The simple description of an abscess is a pocket of pus located somewhere in the body. A cat with an abscess will often have a fever, even if the abscess has ruptured and drained to the outside of the body. Appropriate antibiotic therapy is a critical component of the successful treatment of abscesses, no matter the location.

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Septic Arthritis in Cats

Septic arthritis occurs when bacteria or another infectious agent is introduced into one (or more) joints, leading to painful inflammation. The signs of septic arthritis include heat, swelling, and pain in one or more joints. There will typically be decreased range of motion in the affected joint(s), as well as fever, lethargy, and lack of appetite. Any trauma that penetrates a joint, or a surgery involving a joint, can result in septic arthritis. Osteoarthritis, other joint damage, or injections into a joint can also be root causes of septic arthritis. If a cat with septic arthritis is very ill, they will be hospitalized and treated as necessary to become stabilized. Joint fluid will be extracted for bacterial culture, and the joint may be lavaged to minimize joint damage. Your veterinarian may prescribe a broad-spectrum antibiotic while waiting for the results of the bacterial culture and sensitivity panel. Once the best choice of antibiotic is made, the medication will typically be given for at least 4 to 8 weeks. In addition, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) or a narcotic may be given to relieve pain and inflammation.

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Cyanosis in Cats

Cyanosis is defined as a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes of the body, caused by inadequate oxygen levels. Treatment will depend upon the underlying reason for the low oxygen levels.

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Ulcerative Keratitis in Cats

Ulcerative keratitis is a type of inflammation that occurs in the cornea of the eye. It is most commonly associated with the surface layer- the corneal epithelium- causing an erosion of the surface tissue.

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Brain Injury in Cats

Brain injuries are devastating and, unfortunately, often fatal. The typical signs of brain injury in a cat include altered consciousness that may signal bleeding in the skull, decreased blood flow to the brain, or fluid causing swelling within the brain itself. There are many potential causes of brain injury and treatment will always be determined by the underlying problem that led to the injury.

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Pythiosis in Dogs

Pythiosis is the result of being infected by a water mold called Pythium insidiosum. This organism can affect the gastrointestinal tract or the skin.

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Pneumothorax in Dogs

The definition of a pneumothorax is an accumulation of air outside the lungs, but inside the chest wall. The air outside the lung prevents the lungs from inflating normally, and can lead to lung collapse. There are several variations of pneumothorax.

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Systemic Hypertension in Cats

Blood pressure measurement evaluates the pressure against the walls of arteries during the time the heart contracts and empties itself of blood, as well as during the time the heart relaxes and fills with blood. Systemic hypertension describes high blood pressure throughout the entire body.

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Why do Cats Lick their "Privates" in Public?

Most of the time cats are a source of amusement, but sometimes they can be a source of embarrassment. One of the more embarrassing things that cats do is to lick their private parts in public.

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Atrial Fibrillation in Cats

Atrial fibrillation describes very rapid contractions, or 'twitching', of the heart muscle, confined to the atria, or the top chambers. Most of the time, atrial fibrillation in cats occur secondary to heart disease.

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Syncope (Fainting) in Dogs

Syncope (or fainting) is defined as a temporary loss of consciousness that occurs when the brain does not receive enough oxygen. Most dogs who experience syncope spontaneously recover once appropriate levels of oxygen reach the brain.

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Amyloidosis in Cats

Amyloidosis occurs when proteins called amyloid are deposited outside of cells in various tissues and organs, causing tissue and organ dysfunction.

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Wobbler Syndrome in Dogs (Cervical spondylomyopathy)

Wobbler syndrome is a disease of the neck (the cervical spine) that is seen in large and giant breeds of dog. These dogs experience compression of the spinal cord and the spinal nerve roots, resulting in nervous system deficits and/or neck pain,

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Ataxia in Cats

The word ataxia means incoordination within the nervous system. There are several different forms of ataxia, depending upon where in the nervous system the abnormality occurs. The most common sign of ataxia, regardless of the cause, is an abnormal gait in which the cat is very unsteady on her feet. Treatment of ataxia will be influenced by the root cause. Pain management, supportive care, and creating a safe environment (e.g., preventing access to stairs) are cornerstones of ataxia treatment.

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Corneal Dystrophy in Dogs

Corneal dystrophy is a term used to describe several conditions that occur in dogs and cause the corneas to become opaque. There are three major categories of corneal dystrophy: epithelial, stromal, and endothelial. Each is named by the anatomic location of the abnormal tissue and opacity.

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Collie Eye Anomaly

Collie eye anomaly is an inherited, developmental disease in dogs. There is a mutation on the gene that determines the development of the eye, and this causes the blood vessels that support the retina to be underdeveloped, affecting vision.

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Pulmonary Thromboembolism (Blood Clots in the Lungs) in Cats

Pulmonary means lung, and the word thromboembolism describes a blood clot that has moved through the blood vessels, lodged in one of the pulmonary arteries, and blocked blood flow into the portion of the lung served by that artery. This seems to be more common in medium to large-breed cats, and generally in middle-aged to older cats.

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Pyelonephritis (Bacterial Infection of the Kidney) in Cats

Urinary tract infections are fairly uncommon in cats, although they generally involve the bladder and urethra and are described as lower urinary tract infections. Pyelonephritis is more accurately described as an upper urinary tract infection. The upper urinary tract consists of the kidneys and the ureters.

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Chronic Degenerative Valve Disease in Dogs - In Depth

Chronic degenerative valve disease (CVD) is a consequence of degeneration of the valves between the atrium and ventricle on both the right and left side of the heart. The changes in the valves stops them from forming a tight seal between the atrium and ventricle when the heart is squeezing or pumping. This causes the valves to leak blood backwards into the upper chambers, and an abnormal sound called a heart murmur.

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Food Intolerance in Cats

Adverse food reactions in cats are either caused by food allergy – an immune response to something ingested or food intolerance – a non-immunological response to something ingested. Signs of food intolerance are generally digestive in nature only. Food intolerance will generally occur on the initial exposure to the food or food additive in contrast to food allergy which requires repeated exposures to develop. Different causes of food intolerance include food poisoning, or inappropriate ingestion of an irritant, reaction to food additives, histamine reactions, lactose intolerance and dietary indiscretion such as eating fat or bones. A dietary history is important in diagnosing these conditions.

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Juvenile Hyperparathyroidism

Juvenile hyperparathyroidism is a rare, inherited condition of German Shepherds. This condition causes the parathyroid glands, four small glands that are located in the neck near the thyroid gland, to produce abnormally large amounts of parathyroid hormone.

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Multidrug Resistance Mutation (MDR1)

The phrase 'multidrug resistance mutation 1 (MDR1)' refers to a specific mutation that can occur at a gene known as the MDR1 gene, also known as the ABCB1 gene. Many herding breeds (most commonly Collies and Australian Shepherds) have a mutation at the MDR1 gene that makes them more sensitive to the negative effects of certain medications.

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Pemphigus in Dogs

Pemphigus is an autoimmune skin disease, in which the body's immune system attacks the connections between its own skin cells.

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Discoid (Cutaneous) Lupus Erythematosus

Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE), also known as cutaneous lupus erythematosus, is an autoimmune disease that affects the skin, in which the body's own immune system is activated to attack the body. Dogs with DLE develop crusting and scabbing of the skin, most commonly starting around the nose, as well as a loss of skin pigmentation in the affected area.

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Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease in Dogs

Legg-Calve-Perthes disease is also known as avascular or aseptic necrosis of the femoral head. This is a condition in which the head of the femur (the 'ball' in the ball-and-socket joint that forms the hip) spontaneously begins to degenerate. Over time, this degeneration will cause collapse of the hip and lead to arthritis.

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Dermatomyositis

Dermatomyositis is an inherited disease of the skin, muscles, and blood vessels that causes dramatic inflammation of these tissues in the body. While the exact pathologic mechanisms of dermatomyositis are unknown, an immune-mediated process may be involved.

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Hemophilia A & B in Dogs

Hemophilia A & B are the most common of the inherited blood clotting disorders in dogs. It is the result of a spontaneous mutation of the specific genes that causes a deficiency of blood clotting.

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Hygroma in Dogs

A hygroma is a fluid-filled swelling surrounded by a thick capsule of fibrous tissue that develops under the skin. Hygromas are typically not painful. They can form over any bony prominence on the dog's body, such as the side of the hock (ankle) joint or over the side of the hip, but they are most commonly found over the elbow.

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Muscular Dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy is an inherited disease that affects the muscles. Signs of muscular dystrophy are typically seen early in life (at one to three months of age) and they progress as the dog ages. There are multiple forms of muscular dystrophy noted in animals and humans. The most common form of muscular dystrophy in dogs is seen in Golden Retrievers.

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Fanconi Syndrome in Dogs

Fanconi syndrome describes abnormal function of the part of the kidneys called the tubules. The tubules should reabsorb water, electrolytes and nutrients as urine is formed, that would otherwise be excreted in the urine, but that are critical to normal metabolic function. With this syndrome, the tubules do not properly reabsorb the electrolytes and nutrients, and instead 'spill' them back into the urine to be expelled.

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Sebaceous Adenitis in Dogs

Sebaceous adenitis is an immune-mediated disorder in which there is an inflammatory process directed against the sebaceous glands in the skin. The sebaceous glands are associated with the hair follicles and produce the substance that helps to keep the skin supple and the haircoat soft.

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Pituitary Macroadenoma in Dogs

Pituitary macroadenomas are large, non-cancerous (benign) tumors of the pituitary gland. These tumors may be functional (hormone-secreting) or nonfunctional, and their effects depend on whether the tumor is producing hormones.

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Atlantoaxial Luxation

Atlantoaxial (AA) luxation is a condition in which instability, or excessive movement, is present between the first two vertebrae within the neck. This spinal disorder is most commonly seen in young, small breed dogs, such as Toy Poodles, Miniature Poodles, Yorkshire Terriers, Pomeranians, and Chihuahuas. Less commonly, however, large breed dogs and even cats can be affected.

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Color Dilution Alopecia in Dogs

Color dilution alopecia (CDA) is a genetic recessive inherited condition that causes patches of hair thinning or loss, and may also include flaky and/or itchy skin. The condition is associated with individuals who have what is called dilute color, and is most commonly seen in dogs with a blue or fawn coat.

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Eosinophilic Keratitis in Cats

Feline eosinophilic keratitis is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the cornea. In cats with eosinophilic keratitis, eosinophils (a type of white blood cell) invade the cornea, giving the surface of the eye a pink, white, and/or chalky appearance.

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Algae Poisoning

Blue-green algae, also called cyanobacteria, is found in fresh and brackish water of ponds and lakes. This microscopic bacteria can also grow in backyard fountains, garden pots, bird baths, and anywhere water is stagnant.

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Progressive Retinal Atrophy in Cats

Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) is a group of degenerative diseases that affect photoreceptor cells in the eyes. With this disease, the cells deteriorate over time eventually leading to blindness in the affected cat. There are two main forms of PRA recognized in cats, an early onset, inherited from called retinal dysplasia and a late onset form. This disease has been shown to occur as an inherited condition in Abyssinian and Persian cats. When a cat develops PRA, it should be removed from the breeding program, along with its parents and siblings. As PRA progresses, your cat's vision gradually worsens until she becomes completely blind. There is currently no effective treatment available for PRA. For the average family pet,blindness is not as significant as it would be in a human, and a blind cat will rely more on its other senses.

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Atrioventricular Valve Dysplasia in Cats

There are four chambers in the cat's heart - two top chambers (the atria) and two bottom chambers (the ventricles). There are valves that separate the top chambers from the bottom chambers. When the AV valves are healthy, they act to prevent the backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria during contraction of the heart.

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Ovarian Remnant Syndrome in Dogs

Ovarian remnant syndrome is a condition that occurs when ovarian tissue remains inside the body after a female dog is spayed. This tissue can produce estrogen, triggering signs of heat in the dog.

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Pituitary Macroadenoma in Cats

Pituitary macroadenomas are large, non-cancerous (benign) tumors of the pituitary gland. These tumors may be functional (hormone-secreting) or nonfunctional, and their effects depend on whether the tumor is producing hormones.

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in the Cat

The ductus arteriosus is an arterial shunt between the aorta and the pulmonary artery, the two main blood vessels leading from the heart.It is normally present during fetal development. Patent Ductus Arteriosus, also called( PDA), is a heart defect that occurs when the ductus arteriosus fails to close down at birth.

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Diabetic Remission in Cats

Diabetes is a complex disease involving a hormone called insulin. When a cat does not make enough insulin or cannot properly use the insulin it does make, diabetes results. Diabetic remission occurs when a cat maintains a normal glucose level for more than four weeks without insulin injections or oral glucose regulating medications.

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Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) Gene Mutation

In 2016, researchers identified a gene, called the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene, that contributes to obesity in Labrador Retrievers. A specific mutation of this gene, involving the deletion of 14 DNA base pairs, has been shown to contribute to increased body weight, increased body fat percentages, and increased food motivation in Labrador Retrievers.

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Arthritis and Nutrition for Cats

Approximately 20% of cats across all ages suffer from painful osteoarthritis in one or more joints. The incidence of osteoarthritis increases with age. Because cats are living longer, it is more likely than ever that every cat owner will face the issue of osteoarthritis at some point.

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Globoid-cell Leukodystrophy in Dogs

Globoid-cell leukodystrophy (GCL) is also called Krabbe disease, and it is uniformly fatal. GCL is a very rare disease, and it is caused by a mutation on the dog's DNA.

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Ovarian Remnant Syndrome in Cats

Ovarian remnant syndrome is a condition that occurs when ovarian tissue remains inside the body after a female cat is spayed. This tissue can produce estrogen, triggering signs of heat in the cat. Ovarian remnants may be left behind during surgery, or may be caused by the presence of accessory ovarian tissue.

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Meningoencephalitis of Unknown Origin

Meningoencephalitis is a term referring to inflammation of the brain and the surrounding fluid and tissues. Meningoencephalitis of unknown origin is a term used to describe those cases of meningoencephalitis in which MRI and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis indicate inflammatory, non-infectious CNS disease but diagnosis through histopathological analysis is not available.

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Systemic Lupus in Cats

Systemic lupus is a rare feline autoimmune disease, caused by abnormal regulation of the immune system. In this condition, the cat's immune system recognizes the body's own cells as foreign. The immune system forms antibodies against tissues in the body, directly attacking the body's own cells and depositing antibodies throughout the body's tissues.

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Cutaneous Lymphoma in Cats

Skin cancers are fairly common in cats, but cutaneous lymphoma is quite uncommon. Only about 3% of lymphoma cases in cats occur in the skin. There may be a linkage between feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline cutaneous lymphoma. Unfortunately, feline cutaneous lymphoma is considered incurable.

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Juvenile Cellulitis (Puppy Strangles)

Juvenile cellulitis, also known by the name puppy strangles, is an uncommon skin condition of young dogs. Juvenile cellulitis most commonly affects young puppies, between one and six months of age. The first sign of juvenile cellulitis is usually an acute swelling of the face and muzzle. This generalized swelling is typically followed by the development of raised bumps and pustules over the face, muzzle, and ears.

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Seizures and Syncope

Seizures and syncope are commonly confused, due to similarities between the appearance of these episodes. A seizure is a sudden, uncontrolled movement of the body caused by abnormal brain activity. Syncope describes a temporary loss of consciousness and posture, also known as 'fainting' or 'passing out'.

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Ichthyosis in Dogs

Ichthyosis is a very rare skin condition in dogs that is the result of a recessive genetic mutation. The mutation prevents the outer layer of skin from developing properly. Once a dog is diagnosed with ichthyosis, the symptoms may be controlled with frequently applied medicated shampoos and rinses.

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Round Cell Tumors in Dogs

Round cell tumors are among the most common skin tumors in dogs, and they typically form just under the skin, although they may change the surface of the skin above them. When caught early, most round cell tumors are removed easily, and surgery is generally curative. The most important take home message is to be vigilant, and to have any skin lumps or bumps assessed by your veterinarian promptly.

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Syringomyelia and Chiari-Like Malformation

Syringomyelia is the term that describes fluid-filled cavities that develop within the spinal cord causing abnormal sensation in affected dogs. The underlying issue is called chiari-like malformation (CLM). CLM describes a mismatch between the size of the brain, which is too big, and the space within the skull, which is too small. Dogs that develop CLM and subsequent syringomyelia will often develop withdrawn behavior.

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Lysosomal Storage Diseases in Dogs

The term lysosomal storage diseases describes a group of disorders in which certain metabolic enzymes necessary for normal body functions are not produced by the body. Lysosomal storage diseases are rare and are inherited via recessive genes, meaning both parents are carriers.

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Pigmentary Keratitis

Pigmentary keratitis refers to a brownish-black discoloration of the surface of the eye, caused by the deposition of pigmented melanin granules. Pigmentary keratitis is most common in brachycephalic dogs, such as Pugs, Boxers, Bulldogs, and French Bulldogs.

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Hepatic Microvascular Dysplasia

Hepatic microvascular dysplasia is an inherited abnormality of the liver. In affected dogs, the microscopic blood vessels within the liver are underdeveloped or absent. This decreases blood flow within the liver, causing atrophy (a decrease in size) of the liver and its cells. The liver is less capable of processing toxins and producing proteins that are needed for growth and development.

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Focal Seizures and Fly-Biting in Dogs

A focal seizure refers to an abnormal surge of electrical activity that is confined to a specific area of the brain. Unlike a generalized seizure, in which the animal's entire brain is affected and therefore the entire body shows signs of a seizure, a focal seizure only affects a localized region of the brain and therefore only has limited effects on the body.

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Vitamin D Poisoning in Dogs

Vitamin D poisoning occurs when a dog ingests a toxic dose of vitamin D. A common source of vitamin D poisoning is when a dog accidentally ingests rodenticides containing vitamin D. Another source of vitamin D poisoning is the accidental ingestion of certain human medications.

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Mastitis in Cats

Mastitis is a term used to describe inflammation of a mammary gland. In most cases, mastitis is caused by a bacterial infection. Trauma to the mammary gland, or prolonged periods of milk accumulation without milk removal, can lead to inflammation within the mammary gland.

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Antibiotic Resistant Bacterial Infections in Dogs

Antibiotic resistant bacterial infections are bacterial infections that are minimally or no longer responsive to commonly used antibiotics. In other words, these bacteria are resistant to antibiotics - they cannot be killed and their growth cannot be stopped. An infection that does not respond appropriately to an antibiotic is suggestive of an antibiotic resistant bacterial infection.

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Mastitis in Dogs

Mastitis is a term used to describe inflammation of a mammary gland. In most cases, mastitis is caused by a bacterial infection. Trauma to the mammary gland, or prolonged periods of milk accumulation without milk removal, can lead to inflammation within the mammary gland.

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Focal Seizures and Fly-Biting in Cats

A focal seizure refers to an abnormal surge of electrical activity that is confined to a specific area of the brain. Unlike a generalized seizure, in which the animal's entire brain is affected and therefore the entire body shows signs of a seizure, a focal seizure only affects a localized region of the brain and therefore only has limited effects on the body.

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Vitamin D Poisoning in Cats

Vitamin D poisoning occurs when a cat ingests a toxic dose of vitamin D. A common source of vitamin D poisoning is when a cat accidentally ingests rodenticides containing vitamin D. Vitamin D poisoning causes a variety of clinical signs. The initial clinical signs, occurring anywhere from 8 to 48 hours after ingestion, include depression, weakness, and appetite loss. Vomiting, increased drinking and urination, constipation, and dehydration typically follow these signs.

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Antibiotic Resistant Bacterial Infections in Cats

Antibiotic resistant bacterial infections are bacterial infections that are minimally or no longer responsive to commonly used antibiotics. In other words, these bacteria are resistant to antibiotics - they cannot be killed and their growth cannot be stopped. Antibiotic resistant bacterial infections most commonly affect the skin, the gastrointestinal tract, the urinary tract, or the respiratory tract.

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Acne in Dogs

Canine acne is an inflammatory disorder of the lips and the skin of the muzzle. Dogs with mild cases of acne often have red bumps or pustules (pimples) on their skin. In some cases, acne may be associated with underlying skin conditions. There are a variety of treatments that may be used for the treatment of canine acne.

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Femoral Head Ostectomy (FHO) in Cats

An FHO, or femoral head ostectomy, is a surgical procedure that aims to restore pain-free mobility to a diseased or damaged hip, by removing the head and neck of the femur. An FHO restores mobility to the hip by removing the head of the femur. This procedure is commonly recommended for cats, especially those who are at a healthy weight.

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Femoral Head Ostectomy (FHO) in Dogs

An FHO, or femoral head ostectomy, is a surgical procedure that aims to restore pain-free mobility to a diseased or damaged hip, by removing the head and neck of the femur. An FHO restores mobility to the hip by removing the head of the femur. Active dogs often experience better results with FHO than less-active dogs.

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Vitamin A Toxicosis in Dogs

Too much vitamin A or hypervitaminosis A can lead to serious toxicity. While somewhat uncommon in North America, vitamin A toxicity is sometimes diagnosed in dogs that are fed primarily table scraps. It takes a long time for the clinical signs associated with vitamin A toxicity to develop; symptoms do not usually appear until the dog is at least middle-aged.

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Gastropexy

A gastropexy is a surgical procedure that is sometimes performed in large breed dogs to prevent gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV), also known as bloat. A gastropexy may be performed prophylactically or may be done as part of the surgical management of GDV.

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Nasal Polyps in Cats

Nasal polyps are benign fleshy growths that develop in the nasal passages of cats. Nasal polyps are most frequently observed in young cats. The signs of nasal polyps often mimic an upper respiratory infection, however, these signs may persist with little response to medical therapy. Nasal polyps can often be surgically removed with traction or avulsion.

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Instructions for Ear Cleaning in Cats

Ear cleaning is not usually necessary in cats. Most cats are fine without it, but for those who are prone to wax build-up and/or ear infections, ear cleaning is a very important part of your cat's hygiene needs. Cleaning your dog's ears does not require any special equipment. Your veterinarian can help you decide how often your dog's ears should be cleaned.

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Lacrimal Duct Obstruction in Dogs

The nasolacrimal system consists of a series of narrow tubes that allow tears to drain from the eye. Excess tears drain from the eye to the nose and mouth. Obstruction of the lacrimal ducts can occur for a variety of reasons. Many cases of nasolacrimal duct obstruction are caused by inflammation.

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Lacrimal Duct Obstruction in Cats

The nasolacrimal system consists of a series of narrow tubes that allow tears to drain from the eye. This system allows excess tears to drain from the eye to the nose and mouth. In some cats, this nasolacrimal duct can become obstructed. Most affected cats have excessive watering of the eyes, or reddish-colored tear staining of the face.

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Lymphoma in Dogs

Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymph nodes and lymphatic system. This cancer may be localized to one particular region, or may spread throughout the entire body. Lymphoma is a relatively common cancer, accounting for 15-20% of new cancer diagnoses in dogs. The prognosis for lymphoma varies, depending on various characteristics that can only be determined by specialized testing.

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Rodenticide (Warfarin) Poisoning in Cats

Warfarin rodenticide is an over-the-counter anticoagulant rodenticide used to kill mice, rats, and other pests. Warfarin rodenticide poisoning occurs when a cat ingests the rodenticide accidentally. Clinical signs of poisoning are hemorrhage (bleeding) which usually occurs about 2-3 days after consumption.

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Rodenticide (Warfarin) Poisoning in Dogs

Warfarin rodenticide is an over-the-counter anticoagulant rodenticide used to kill mice, rats, and other pests. Warfarin rodenticide poisoning occurs when a dog ingests the rodenticide accidentally. Clinical signs of poisoning are hemorrhage (bleeding) which usually occurs about 2-3 days after consumption.

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Ibuprofen Poisoning in Dogs

Ibuprofen is a commonly used NSAID and is used to treat fever, pain, and inflammation in humans. Ibuprofen poisoning occurs when a dog ingests a toxic dose of ibuprofen, either through misuse or by accident. Most commonly in dogs, clinical signs related to irritation and ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract are observed including decreased appetite, vomiting (sometimes with blood), diarrhea, depression, abdominal pain, dark tarry stools, and bloody stools.

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Ibuprofen Poisoning in Cats

Ibuprofen is a commonly used NSAID and is used to treat fever, pain, and inflammation in humans. Ibuprofen poisoning occurs when a cat ingests a toxic dose of ibuprofen, either through misuse or by accident. Ibuprofen poisoning causes many different clinical signs because many different organ systems can be affected. Most commonly, cats show signs related to kidney problems.

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Toad Poisoning in Dogs

Toad poisoning (or toxicity) occurs when a dog is exposed to the toxins secreted by certain species of toads. The two most common species of toads that cause poisonings in the United States are the cane or marine toad and the Colorado River or Sonoran desert toad. While there are toads in Canada that secrete toxic substances, their effects are much less severe than the toxins secreted by the cane or Sonoran desert toads. Death can occur quickly and immediate treatment is required.

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Muscle Tears in Dogs

Muscle tears are direct or indirect traumatic injuries that cause damage to the architecture of the muscle tissue. The most common cause is an indirect injury, or strain, caused by overstretching during athletic activities, such as running or jumping. Clinical signs of muscle tears include pain on palpation of the injured area, lameness or limping, swelling of the muscle, and/or bruising. Muscle tears are treated immediately with rest, cold compresses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation. In the most severe cases, surgery is likely required.

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Muscle Tears in Cats

Muscle tears are direct or indirect traumatic injuries that cause damage to the architecture of the muscle tissue. The most common cause is an indirect injury, or strain, caused by overstretching during athletic activities, such as running or jumping. Clinical signs of muscle tears include pain on palpation of the injured area, lameness or limping, swelling of the muscle, and/or bruising. Muscle tears are treated immediately with rest, cold compresses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation. In the most severe cases, surgery is likely required.

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Infertility in Male Dogs

There are many possible causes of infertility in male dogs, including behavioral, physical, and medical factors. Your veterinarian will perform a thorough examination and testing to diagnose the reason for your male dog's infertility, and treatment will depend on the underlying cause.

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Infertility in Female Dogs

There are many possible causes of infertility in female dogs, including behavioral, physical, and medical factors. Your veterinarian will perform a thorough examination and testing to diagnose the reason for your female dog's infertility, and treatment will depend on the underlying cause.

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Infertility in Female Cats

There are many possible causes of infertility in female cats, including behavioral, physical, and medical factors. Your veterinarian will perform a thorough examination and testing to diagnose the reason for your female cat's infertility, and treatment will depend on the underlying cause.

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Infertility in Male Cats

There are many possible causes of infertility in male cats, including behavioral, genetic, physical, and medical factors. Your veterinarian will perform a thorough examination and testing to diagnose the reason for your male cat's infertility, and treatment will depend on the underlying cause.

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Shaker Syndrome in Dogs

Shaker syndrome is a condition involving generalized head and body tremors in dogs. The condition is often seen in small-breed, white dogs, although dogs of any size and color may be affected. The cause is unknown, but thought to be autoimmune due to its response to treatment with steroids.

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Lymphoma in Cats

Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are cells that are involved in the immune system. Lymphoma is connected with feline leukemia, a viral infection. Feline lymphoma most commonly affects the intestines. Therefore, clinical signs of lymphoma are often similar to other intestinal diseases. Diagnosing lymphoma requires finding cancerous cells on microscopic examination. Lymphoma cannot be prevented, but the likelihood of a cat developing lymphoma can be decreased by preventing feline leukemia virus infection.

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Botulism in Cats

Botulism is a rare condition that can cause paralysis in cats. It is caused by ingesting the botulinum toxin, which is produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum that can grow on raw meat and dead animals. The toxin can cause muscle paralysis and lead to death. It is difficult to diagnose and there is no vaccine available, although an antitoxin is available if the condition is identified before signs develop.

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Tetanus in Dogs

Tetanus is a medical condition caused by a toxin. This toxin, produced by the bacteria Clostridium tetani, affects the nerves, spinal cord and brain, leading to hyperexcitability resulting in muscle spasms. Dogs are less susceptible to the effects of tetanus toxin than humans and horses. Tetanus is typically diagnosed based on exam findings. Dogs with tetanus require intensive nursing care. Most dogs develop localized, self-limiting disease, which will respond to appropriate early treatment.

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Blood Transfusion Reactions in Cats

A transfusion reaction is a medical reaction that occurs in response to a blood transfusion. Many transfusion reactions occur acutely, within seconds of starting the transfusion up to 48 hours post-transfusion. In other cases, however, transfusion reactions may be delayed. In many cases, a transfusion reaction can be diagnosed based on clinical signs alone. Your veterinarian will then administer medications specific to the type of reaction that your cat is experiencing.

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Blood Transfusion Reactions in Dogs

A transfusion reaction is a medical reaction that occurs in response to a blood transfusion. Many transfusion reactions occur acutely, within seconds of starting the transfusion up to 48 hours post-transfusion. In other cases, however, transfusion reactions may be delayed. In many cases, a transfusion reaction can be diagnosed based on clinical signs alone. Your veterinarian will then administer medications specific to the type of reaction that your dog is experiencing.

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Von Willebrand's Disease in Cats

Von Willebrand's disease is an inherited bleeding disorder. Cats with von Willebrand's disease lack von Willebrand's factor, a blood protein that helps platelets adhere to sites of blood vessel injury. Although affected cats have normal platelets, they experience clotting difficulties because their platelets do not properly adhere to injury sites.

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Inhalant Allergies (Atopy) in Cats

Atopy, also known as inhalant allergy, is a common cause of skin problems in cats. Cats with atopy are often allergic to the same allergens that affect humans: tree pollens, grass pollens, weeds, molds, and dust mites. Cats develop skin inflammation in response to these allergens. Atopy is a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that your veterinarian will rule out other, similar skin conditions in order to arrive at a diagnosis. If your cat is diagnosed with atopy, lifelong management will be required in order to manage your cat's clinical signs.

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Food Allergies in Cats

Food allergy refers to an allergic reaction to a protein found within food. Food allergies can develop at any time during a cat's life, typically causing chronic, year-round itching and skin inflammation. Affected cats may develop recurrent infections of both the skin and ears. Food allergies are diagnosed by performing a food trial and managed through the long-term feeding of a food that does not trigger an allergic reaction.

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Chediak-Higashi Syndrome in Cats

Chediak-Higashi syndrome is a rare genetic disease of smoke-blue Persian cats. This condition affects how the body's cells process waste, leading to changes within the cells and abnormal pigmentation of the skin and coat. Cats with Chediak-Higashi syndrome also tend to have eye abnormalities. The most significant effect of Chediak-Higashi syndrome in cats is increased bleeding, caused by abnormal platelet function, though some cats may also show signs of a weakened immune system. Most cats with Chediak-Higashi syndrome do not require treatment for this condition.

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Discospondylitis/Diskospondylitis

Discospondylitis is a bacterial or fungal infection of the intervertebral disks and the adjacent vertebral bone. This infection may reach the intervertebral disk via one of three routes: hematogenous (blood borne), direct contamination, or migrating foreign body. Discospondylitis can often be diagnosed based on X-rays, but advanced imaging and other diagnostic tests may be required. Treatment and prognosis depend on the causative organism.

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Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome (SARDS)

Sudden acquired retinal degeneration syndrome (SARDS), refers to rapid and irreversible blindness due to changes within the retina. SARDS is idiopathic, meaning that we do not know what causes it. Some speculate that it may be due to autoimmune inflammation within the retina, but there is no proof of this theory. Dogs with SARDS appear to go blind very quickly, over a period of days to weeks. The only way to definitively diagnose SARDS is with a test called electroretinography (ERG). Most cases of SARDS, however, are diagnosed on the basis of history and clinical signs seen on veterinary exam. There is no effective treatment for SARDS, but most affected dogs have an excellent quality of life once they adjust to their blindness.

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Prostatic Disease in Cats

Diseases of the prostate is extremely rare in the cat and very little is known about them. Very few documented cases of prostate cancer have been noted with mixed success on treatment.

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Vulvoplasty (Episioplasty)

Vulvoplasty, also known as episioplasty, is a surgical procedure that your veterinarian may recommend to correct a conformational issue known as a recessed vulva. Your veterinarian will remove a crescent-shaped piece of tissue from above the vulva, allowing the skin to be pulled upwards into a more normal conformation. This procedure is performed under general anesthesia. Your pet will be intubated with an endotracheal tube. After surgery, you will need to give pain medications and antibiotics as directed and keep your dog confined/restricted for approximately two weeks. Skin sutures, if used, can typically be removed 10-14 days after surgery.

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Recessed Vulva

A recessed vulva, also referred to as a juvenile or hypoplastic vulva, is a conformational issue that occurs in female dogs. In this condition, the vulva is recessed within, or partially hidden by, surrounding folds of skin. Some dogs might have a recessed vulva for their entire life without ever experiencing any visible effects. In other dogs, however, a recessed vulva can predispose them to vaginitis and/or urinary tract infections. A recessed vulva is typically diagnosed based on a physical exam by your veterinarian, but additional testing may be necessary to determine what effects the recessed vulva is having on your pet’s health. Depending on the severity of your dog’s clinical signs, medical or surgical options may be used to treat this condition.

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Pleural Effusion in Dogs

Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid within the chest cavity. In pleural effusion, the fluid is not found within the lungs, but instead within the pleural sac. Pleural effusion can have a number of different causes, including diseases of the heart, lungs, or other systemic diseases. Dogs with pleural effusion often have rapid, shallow breathing and pet owners may notice increased respiratory effort. Dogs may develop open-mouthed breathing in an effort to increase air flow. Pleural effusion is typically diagnosed with radiographs. Determining the underlying cause typically requires thoracocentesis.

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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (Shock Lung) in Cats

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening complication of critical illness. These underlying critical illnesses may include sepsis, pancreatitis, pneumonia (either due to an infection or the inhalation of foreign materials), trauma, near-drowning, and other severe illnesses. In ARDS, massive inflammation and the release of various inflammatory chemicals leads to the leaking of capillaries within the lungs. Signs of ARDS include increased respiratory rate, blue discoloration to skin and mucous membranes due to poor oxygen delivery, and occasionally coughing. Treatment of ARDS is primarily focused on supportive care and addressing the underlying critical illness.

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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (Shock Lung) in Dogs

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a life-threatening complication of critical illness. These underlying critical illnesses may include sepsis, pancreatitis, pneumonia (either due to an infection or the inhalation of foreign materials), trauma, near-drowning, and other severe illnesses. In ARDS, massive inflammation and the release of various inflammatory chemicals leads to the leaking of capillaries within the lungs. Signs of ARDS include increased respiratory rate, blue discoloration to skin and mucous membranes due to poor oxygen delivery, and occasionally coughing. Treatment of ARDS is primarily focused on supportive care and addressing the underlying critical illness.

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Endocarditis in Cats

Endocarditis is an infection of a heart valve, most often affecting the mitral or aortic valve. It can arise any time that bacteria enter the bloodstream, though it is more common when the heart valve has already been damaged for some other reason. The clinical signs of endocarditis are often nonspecific in the early stages, but may progress to include signs of heart failure later in the course of the disease. The diagnosis and treatment of endocarditis can present a challenge, requiring multiple tests and prolonged courses of antibiotic therapy.

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Aortic Stenosis in Cats

Aortic stenosis is a heart disease that is present at birth. Cats affected with aortic stenosis have a narrowing at the aortic valve of the heart. This narrowing forces the heart to work abnormally hard to force blood through the narrowed valve. The clinical signs of aortic stenosis vary depending on how severe the stenosis is; some cats remain asymptomatic throughout their life, while other cats begin showing clinical signs at an early age and can experience sudden death. The treatment of aortic stenosis depends upon the severity of the condition.

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Follicular Conjunctivitis

Follicular conjunctivitis is an eye condition that primarily affects young dogs, under 18 months of age. Follicular conjunctivitis is often caused by allergens, such as dust, grass, and weeds. As the immune cells within the conjunctiva are stimulated by allergens or other irritants, the lymphoid follicles enlarge, forming raised swellings. These swellings can contribute to further inflammation of the eye. Mild cases of follicular conjunctivitis do not require treatment. If your dog’s eye is uncomfortable, treatment may include saline rinses, topical steroids, and possible debridement.

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Pyothorax in Dogs

Pyothorax occurs when pus or inflammatory fluids collect in the space around the lungs causing fever, anorexia, lethargy, and difficulty breathing. It is the result of infection around the lungs caused by wounds either internally or externally, migrating foreign bodies, or lung infection. It is diagnosed through history, physical exam, radiographs, and thoracocentesis. Treatment may involve repeated thoracocentesis or the placement of a chest drain, as well as antibiotics and supportive care. Prognosis is variable but good if the dog survives the critical early stages.

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Pericardial Effusion in Cats

Pericardial effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the sac surrounding the heart. Pericardial effusion can have a number of underlying causes, including inflammation, infection, cancer, and hereditary defects. Mild cases of pericardial effusion may be asymptomatic, but more significant fluid accumulations can interfere with the heart’s function and lead to severe effects such as sudden death. Treatment and prognosis is dependent upon the underlying cause of the condition.

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Veterinary Care for Mini-Pigs

Just like other pets, mini-pigs should have a complete veterinary check-up after they are acquired and then annually after that. Your pig may need to be sedated for examination. Your veterinarian will determine the vaccines that are advisable for your pig, based on your pig's potential exposure to pathogens, breeding status, and geographic location. An analysis of your pig's feces should be performed annually to check for gastrointestinal parasites. Pet pigs should be screened for mites through a skin scraping. Veterinarians also will often help pig owners with hoof care and tusk trimming. Neutering of males and spaying of females is recommended for all pigs.

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Burns in Dogs

A burn is a type of skin injury, commonly caused by heat, fire, or chemicals. Burns are classified based on how many layers of skin are affected; this classification scheme can help predict prognosis. Treatment of burns varies, depending on the severity of the burn and how much of the body is affected. Superficial burns may heal without treatment, while more severe burns may require hospitalization and possible skin grafts.

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Hyperlipidemia

Hyperlipidemia refers to elevated levels of lipids (fats) in the bloodstream. There are several possible causes of hyperlipidemia: postprandial, medication-induced, hereditary, and secondary or acquired. Treatment centers on correcting underlying conditions (if possible), feeding a low-fat diet, and possible administration of supplements and medications.

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Addison's Disease in Cats

Hypoadrenocorticism, also known as Addison’s disease, is a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough glucocorticoids (steroids) to allow normal body function. This condition is considered rare in cats, but numerous cases have been reported. Affected cats often have a history of waxing and waning periods of lethargy, decreased appetite, and weight loss. Long-term, cats with hypoadrenocorticism require medications to supplement the substances released from the adrenal glands.

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Corneal Lipidosis

Corneal lipidosis is an accumulation of fatty substances within the cornea. This is caused by genetics (corneal dystrophy), eye inflammation (corneal degeneration), or by an increase in circulating lipids in the body (hyperlipidemia). Visually, lipidosis appears as a sparkly or shiny area of the cornea. It is diagnosed by a thorough eye exam, bloodwork, and patient history. Treatment and prognosis will depend on the cause and may include treatment of underlying inflammatory conditions of the eye, or systemic treatment of elevated lipid blood levels.

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Seasonal Flank Alopecia

Seasonal flank alopecia is a skin condition of dogs, in which affected dogs lose patches of hair on a seasonal basis. Although the cause of this condition has not been definitively determined, it is thought to be caused by an abnormal response of the hair follicles to the normal hormonal changes that occur with changing day length. This condition is purely cosmetic; therefore, no treatment is necessary. Melatonin can be used to speed hair regrowth and prevent hair loss in dogs that develop this condition on a recurrent basis.

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Meningitis in Cats

Meningitis refers to inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. Causes include bacterial infection, viral infection, fungal infection, protozoal infection, aberrant parasite migration, or immune-mediated disease. A CSF tap is the most accurate way to diagnose meningitis, though CT and MRI may also be beneficial. Treatment and prognosis vary, depending upon the underlying cause.

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Meningitis in Dogs

Meningitis refers to inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. Causes include bacterial infection, viral infection, fungal infection, protozoal infection, aberrant parasite migration, or immune-mediated disease. A CSF tap is the most accurate way to diagnose meningitis, though CT and MRI may also be beneficial. Treatment and prognosis vary, depending upon the underlying cause.

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Polycystic Kidney Disease in Dogs

Polycystic kidney disease is an inherited kidney disease that is common in cats, but uncommon in dogs. Dogs with polycystic kidney disease develop multiple fluid-filled cysts within the kidney, with the number and size of these cysts increasing with age. As the kidney cysts displace larger and larger amounts of functioning kidney tissue, the dog begins to show signs of chronic kidney disease. There is no specific treatment for polycystic kidney disease; treatment is centered on alleviating the signs of chronic kidney disease.

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Xanthine Bladder Stones in Dogs

Xanthine bladder stones are an uncommon type of urinary stone that can occur in both dogs and cats. Xanthine is produced when certain types of proteins are broken down within the body; while most dogs further breakdown xanthine to other substances that are more easily excreted, some pets are deficient in an enzyme that is required for this breakdown to occur. These pets develop elevated levels of xanthine in the urine, resulting in xanthine stones forming within the urinary tract. Xanthine urinary tract stones are typically removed surgically. Affected dogs require long-term care to prevent recurrence of xanthine urinary tract stones.

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Xanthine Bladder Stones in Cats

Xanthine bladder stones are an uncommon type of urinary stone that can occur in both dogs and cats. Xanthine is produced when certain types of proteins are broken down within the body; while most cats further breakdown xanthine to other substances that are more easily excreted, some pets are deficient in an enzyme that is required for this breakdown to occur. These pets develop elevated levels of xanthine in the urine, resulting in xanthine stones forming within the urinary tract. Xanthine urinary tract stones are typically removed surgically. Affected cats require long-term care to prevent recurrence of xanthine urinary tract stones.

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Cataracts in Cats

A cataract is an increase in the opacity of the lens of the eye. There are many potential causes of cataracts because any type of damage to the lens can lead to a cataract. The clinical signs of cataracts vary significantly, depending on the size of the cataract; many cataracts are asymptomatic at the time they are diagnosed during a veterinary exam. The ideal treatment for cataracts is surgery, but not all cats are candidates for surgical treatment. In these cases, anti-inflammatory medications may be used to prevent glaucoma and other secondary complications of cataracts.

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Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)

SARS-CoV-2 is a new type of coronavirus that has not previously been identified. This virus is not the same coronavirus that can cause the common cold in humans, nor is it the same as canine coronavirus (CCoV). At this time, there is no evidence that any animal or pet can infect humans with the new coronavirus. Because this is a new virus and information is still being collected, as a precaution, restrict contact with your pets if you are diagnosed with COVID-19. Currently, a vaccine for this new SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is not available.

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Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)

At this time, we do not have evidence that a companion animal can infect humans with this new coronavirus. While there is evidence of transmission from humans to dogs and cats, it does not appear to be a common event at this time. Dogs that have tested positive have never shown signs of illness. If you suspect that you are ill with COVID-19, you should practice the same precautions with your pet as you would with people – wear a mask, keep your distance, wash hands regularly, and avoid cuddling and other close contact.

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Telemedicine and How it Works

Telemedicine is defined as the act of practicing medicine at a distance. Telemedicine can be offered in a number of different ways: telephone calls, text messaging, online chat, email consultations, and visits conducted through videoconferencing programs. Telemedicine is not appropriate for every concern, such as a pet hit by a car; however, a number of common veterinary complaints can be addressed via telemedicine (e.g., flea allergies, minor limping, mild diarrhea). While it is impossible to perform a complete, comprehensive exam during a telemedicine appointment, in many cases your veterinarian can gather enough information to arrive at a reasonable diagnosis and start treatment. If your veterinarian determines that your pet requires in-person care, your veterinarian can help you determine when and where your pet should be seen and may be able to give you an idea of what to expect during the in-person veterinary visit.

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Preparing for Your Telemedicine Appointment

Telemedicine is the act of practicing medicine from a distance and your appointment will be conducted by a licensed veterinarian. Before your appointment, gather information on your pet’s history and your current concern. Look at a calendar and write down a timeline of your pet’s problems. Be prepared to answer questions that you would normally be asked at an in-person appointment. Write notes to help you remember everything. Most telemedicine appointments involve the use of some type of video chat. Conduct your visit in a quiet area with good lighting and have your pet with you before the call starts. Not all concerns can be addressed through telemedicine. If your veterinarian is unable to arrive at a diagnosis via telemedicine, he or she can help you determine the next step for your pet to ensure that he or she receives optimal care.

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Bowel Incontinence in Cats

Bowel incontinence refers to the loss of the ability to control bowel movements. There are two broad causes of fecal incontinence: reservoir incontinence and sphincter incontinence. In reservoir incontinence, intestinal disease interferes with the rectum’s ability to store normal volumes of feces. In sphincter incontinence, a structural or neurologic lesion prevents the anal sphincter from closing normally. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and treatment vary based upon the underlying cause.

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Bowel Incontinence in Dogs

Bowel incontinence refers to the loss of the ability to control bowel movements. There are two broad causes of fecal incontinence: reservoir incontinence and sphincter incontinence. In reservoir incontinence, intestinal disease interferes with the rectum’s ability to store normal volumes of feces. In sphincter incontinence, a structural or neurologic lesion prevents the anal sphincter from closing normally. Clinical signs, diagnostic testing, and treatment vary based upon the underlying cause.

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